The DOI matches its Crossref record; 60 of the 61 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 71 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Social isolation
Open accessAbstract
Social species, by definition, form organizations that extend beyond the individual. These structures evolved hand in hand with behavioral, neural, hormonal, cellular, and genetic mechanisms to support them because the consequent social behaviors helped these organisms survive, reproduce, and care for offspring sufficiently long that they too reproduced. Social isolation represents a lens through which to investigate these behavioral, neural, hormonal, cellular, and genetic mechanisms. Evidence from human and nonhuman animal studies indicates that isolation heightens sensitivity to social threats (predator evasion) and motivates the renewal of social connections. The effects of perceived isolation in humans share much in common with the effects of experimental manipulations of isolation in nonhuman social species: increased tonic sympathetic tonus and HPA activation; and decreased inflammatory control, immunity, sleep salubrity, and expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid responses. Together, these effects contribute to higher rates of morbidity and mortality in older adults.
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42 Not checked yet · 11 Own interpretation · 1 Supported · 1 Supported so far · 1 No basis given
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In the paper
“We found that perceived isolation predicted weaker activation of the ventral striatum to pleasant pictures of people than of equally pleasant pictures of objects.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [47] Cacioppo JT In the eye of the beholder: individual differences in perceived social isolation predict regional brain activation to social stimuli Journal of cognitive neuroscience 2009 21 83 92 18476760 PMC2810252 source
The Discussion states that greater loneliness was associated with less activation to pleasant pictures of people than of objects in a region centered in the ventral striatum. The Results (fMRI Data) report the same pattern for the pleasant social-minus-nonsocial picture contrast. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“TPJ activation was observed when participants viewed unpleasant pictures of people versus objects and, as would be expected if isolation increases a focus on predator evasion and self-preservation, individual differences in perceived social isolation were inversely related to the amount of activation observed in the TPJ.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Cacioppo JT In the eye of the beholder: individual differences in perceived social isolation predict regional brain activation to social stimuli Journal of cognitive neuroscience 2009 21 83 92 18476760 PMC2810252 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In an fMRI study, we found that individual differences in perceived isolation predicted the activation of the visual cortex to the presentation of unpleasant social, in contrast to nonsocial, pictures”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Cacioppo JT In the eye of the beholder: individual differences in perceived social isolation predict regional brain activation to social stimuli Journal of cognitive neuroscience 2009 21 83 92 18476760 PMC2810252 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“They reported that social isolation was a significant risk factor for broad-based morbidity and mortality—a finding that subsequent research has confirmed.2”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] House JS Landis KR Umberson D Social relationships and health Science (New York, N.Y.) 1988 241 540 545 3399889 source
- Not checked yetcites [2] Holt-Lunstad J Smith TB Layton JB Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-analytic Review PLoS Medicine 2010 7 e1000316 20668659 PMC2910600 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together, these effects contribute to higher rates of morbidity and mortality in older adults.”
§ Social isolation > Abstract
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In the paper
“What was especially surprising was that social isolation was as strong a risk factor for morbidity and mortality as smoking, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and high blood pressure.1”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] House JS Landis KR Umberson D Social relationships and health Science (New York, N.Y.) 1988 241 540 545 3399889 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“among women, direct social control (i.e., “how often does anyone tell or remind you to do anything to protect your health?”) predicted increased physical activity three years later.4”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Umberson D Gender, marital status and the social control of health behavior Social Science & Medicine 1992 34 907 917 1604380 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Open field behavior in nonhuman animals represents a compromise between predator evasion tactics and the reinstatement of contact with an ingroup.45,46”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“increases the morning rises in cortisol in squirrel monkeys.20”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [20] Lyons D Ha C Levine S Social effects and circadian rhythms in squirrel monkey pituitary-adrenal activity Hormones and Behavior 1995 29 177 190 7557921 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“perceived social isolation is a more important determinant of deleterious outcomes than is the variation in objective social isolation that is seen in population based studies”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Cacioppo JT Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses Psychology and aging 2006 21 140 151 16594799 source
- Not checked yetcites [22] Cacioppo JT Hawkley LC Perceived social isolation and cognition Trends in cognitive sciences 2009 13 447 454 19726219 PMC2752489 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“increases the activation of the sympatho-adrenomedullary response to an acute immobilization or cold stressor in rats;16”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [16] Dronjak S Immobilization and cold stress affect sympatho-adrenomedullary system and pituitary-adrenocortical axis of rats exposed to long-term isolation and crowding Physiology and Behavior 2004 81 409 415 15135012 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This finding is paralleled by decreases in lymphocyte sensitivity to physiological regulation by the hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical (HPA) axis in individuals who feel socially isolated.33”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Cole SW Social regulation of leukocyte homeostasis: the role of glucocorticoid sensitivity Brain, behavior, and immunity 2008 22 1049 1055 PMC3004947 18394861 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“delays the positive effects of running on adult neurogenesis in rats;15”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] Stranahan AM Khalil D Gould E Social isolation delays the positive effects of running on adult neurogenesis Nature neuroscience 2006 9 526 533 PMC3029943 16531997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Wilson et al.35 reported that perceived social isolation predicted cognitive decline and risk for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Importantly, perceived isolation persisted in predicting each of these outcomes even when social network size and frequency of social activity were statistically held constant.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35] Wilson RS Loneliness and risk of Alzheimer disease Archives of general psychiatry 2007 64 234 240 17283291 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Together with evidence of increased activity of the HPA axis,29,34 these results suggest the development of glucocorticoid resistance in individuals who feel chronically isolated.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Adam EK Day-to-day dynamics of experience--cortisol associations in a population-based sample of older adults Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2006 103 17058 17063 17075058 PMC1636578 source
- Not checked yetcites [34] Steptoe A Loneliness and neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and inflammatory stress responses in middle-aged men and women Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004 29 593 611 15041083 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“studies of isolation and health behaviors indicate that social control does not explain many of the effects of isolation in humans.10,11”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Hawkley LC Thisted R Cacioppo JT Loneliness predicts reduced physical activity: cross-sectional & longitudinal analyses Health psychology: official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 2009 28 354 363 PMC2791498 19450042 source
- Not checked yetcites [11] Seeman TE Health promoting effects of friends and family on health outcomes in older adults American Journal of Health Promotion 2000 14 362 370 11067571 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“decreases the expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid response in the frontal cortex of piglets;17”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] Poletto R Effects of early weaning and social isolation on the expression of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 and 2 mRNAs in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of piglets Brain research 2006 1067 36 42 16271354 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Feeling socially disconnected and isolated triggers social pain, an aversive signal that evolved to motivate one to take action that minimizes threats or damage to one’s social body.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] Cacioppo JT Patrick B Loneliness: Human nature and the need for social connection 2008 New York W. W. Norton & Company
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Research on social rejection, for instance, suggests that social pain co-opted the physical pain to extend its protective function to include those with whom we form connections.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44] Eisenberger NI Lieberman MD Williams KD Does rejection hurt? An FMRI study of social exclusion Science (New York, N.Y.) 2003 302 290 292 14551436 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In Eisenberger, Lieberman, and Williams,44 participants were excluded from or included in a social situation (i.e., a ball tossing game). Results revealed neural activation localized in a dorsal portion of the anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) that is implicated in the affective component of the physical pain response.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44] Eisenberger NI Lieberman MD Williams KD Does rejection hurt? An FMRI study of social exclusion Science (New York, N.Y.) 2003 302 290 292 14551436 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stroop interference is used to gauge the implicit processing of stimuli, so these results suggest that perceived isolation is associated with a heightened accessibility of negative social information.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“social isolation decreases the lifespan of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster;12”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Ruan H Wu C-F Social interaction-mediated lifespan extension of Drosophila Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase mutants Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2008 105 7506 7510 18508973 PMC2396722 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“experimental studies in nonhuman social species indicate that isolation has direct, deleterious physiological effects.”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Ruan H Wu C-F Social interaction-mediated lifespan extension of Drosophila Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase mutants Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2008 105 7506 7510 18508973 PMC2396722 source
- Not checked yetcites [13] Karelina K Estrous phase alters social behavior in a polygynous but not a monogamous Peromyscus species Hormones and behavior 2010 58 193 199 20382149 source
- Not checked yetcites [14] Nonogaki K Nozue K Oka Y Social isolation affects the development of obesity and type 2 diabetes in mice Endocrinology 2007 148 4658 4666 17640995 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These studies indicate that the heritability of individual differences in perceived isolation is approximately 50%.”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [58] Bartels M Genetic and environmental contributions to stability in loneliness throughout childhood American journal of medical genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric genetics: the official publication of the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics 2008 147 385 391 17918194 source
- Not checked yetcites [59] McGuire S Clifford J Genetic and environmental contributions to loneliness in children Psychological science: a journal of the American Psychological Society / APS 2000 11 487 491 11202494 source
- Not checked yetcites [60] Boomsma DI Longitudinal genetic analysis for loneliness in Dutch twins Twin research and human genetics: the official journal of the International Society for Twin Studies 2007 10 267 273 17564516 source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Boomsma DI Genetic and environmental contributions to loneliness in adults: the Netherlands twin register study Behavior genetics 2005 35 745 752 16273322 source
- Not checked yetcites [62] Boomsma D Genetic Linkage and Association Analysis for Loneliness in Dutch Twin and Sibling Pairs Points to a Region on Chromosome 12q23-24 Behavior Genetics 2006 36 137 146 16378171 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“We have interpreted this heritability as reflecting differences in sensitivity to the pain of social disconnection.63”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [63] Cacioppoq JT Hawkley LC Correll J Perceived social isolation within personal and evolutionary timescales Handbook of Social Exclusion in press
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, there is now considerable evidence that social isolation, and the pain associated with the disconnection that produces isolation, can fruitfully be conceived as a biological construct, a state that has evolved as an aversive signal that motivates changes behavior to help individuals avoid damage and promote the transmission of genes to the gene pool.”
§ Social isolation > Summary
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Early in human history, survival and prosperity depended on banding together in couples, families, and tribes for mutual protection and assistance.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The combination of immunosuppression and pro-inflammatory effects may be especially caustic.”
§ Social isolation > Summary
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note, however, that in this context the mother–infant attachment builds on heritable differences in sensitivity to isolation rather than the pain of isolation resulting from poor infant attachment behaviors by the mother.”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A well-characterized response to maternal separation is the separation cry. In the rat, the separation cry is in the ultrasonic range (40–45 kHz).”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experimental, cross-sectional, and longitudinal studies are beginning to elucidate the various ways in which perceived isolation is related to, and in some cases affects, human neural, hormonal, cellular, and genetic processes.”
§ Social isolation > Summary
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 26
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Studies using these assessments indicate that objective social isolation can affect perceptions of isolation,23,24 but show that perceived social isolation is more closely related to the quality than the quantity of social interactions.25”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [23] Hawkley LC From social structure factors to perceptions of relationship quality and loneliness: The Chicago Health, Aging, and Social Relations Study Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences 2008 63B S375 S384 PMC2769562 19092047 source
Citation 25 attaches to the claim that perceived isolation is more closely related to quality than quantity, not to the preceding claim about objective isolation. The Discussion states that loneliness is most robustly associated with qualitative aspects of social relationships, while also noting an independent association with network size. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not checked yetcites [24] Ruiz J Emotional Climate in Organizations: Applications in Latin American Prisons Journal of Social Issues 2007 63 289 306 source
- Supportedcites [25] Hawkley LC From social structural factors to perceptions of relationship quality and loneliness: the Chicago health, aging, and social relations study The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences 2008 63 S375 S384 PMC2769562 19092047 source
Citation 25 is attached to the claim that perceived isolation relates more closely to interaction quality than quantity. The paper defines loneliness as a perceived feeling of isolation and states that it is more closely related to the perceived quality than the quantity of social relationships; its Discussion likewise says the association is most robust for qualitative aspects. The cited passages do not provide page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.92)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The presence of others, even ostensive friends, may constitute a social threat at any moment in time.
- Rests on an assumption: The objective presence of others is not sufficient to ensure the social connections needed for human survival and prosperity.
- Supported
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effects of perceived isolation in humans share much in common with the effects of experimental manipulations of isolation in nonhuman social species: increased tonic sympathetic tonus and HPA activation, and decreased inflammatory control, immunity, sleep salubrity, and expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid responses.”
§ Social isolation > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Social control theory holds that internalized obligations to, and the overt influence of, network members tend to discourage poor health behaviors and encourage good health behaviors.3”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Umberson D Family Status and Health Behaviors: Social Control as a Dimension of Social Integration Journal of Health and Social Behavior 1987 28 306 319 3680922 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Being married is associated with an increased likelihood of engaging in health-promoting behaviors such as exercise,5–7 presumably because marital partners exert some influence over these behaviors.8,9”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Pettee K Influence of Marital Status on Physical Activity Levels among Older Adults MEDICINE AND SCIENCE IN SPORTS AND EXERCISE 2006 38 541 546 16540843 source
- Not checked yetcites [6] Satariano W Living Arrangements and Participation in Leisure-Time Physical Activities in an Older Population Journal of Aging and Health 2002 14 427 451 12391994 source
- Not checked yetcites [7] Schmitz K Correlates of Changes in Leisure Time Physical Activity over 2 Years: The Healthy Worker Project Preventive Medicine 1997 26 9245681 source
- Not checked yetcites [8] Umberson D Family Status and Health Behaviors: Social Control as a Dimension of Social Integration Journal of Health and Social Behavior 1987 28 3680922 source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Umberson D Gender, marital status and the social control of health behavior Social science & medicine (1982) 1992 34 1604380 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evidence from human and nonhuman animal studies indicates that isolation heightens sensitivity to social threats (predator evasion) and motivates the renewal of social connections.”
§ Social isolation > Abstract
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Humans need others to survive and prosper.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together, these experimental studies suggest that social isolation increases chronic sympathetic tonus, oxidative stress, and HPA activation while decreasing inflammatory control, immunity, and the expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid responses.”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, perceived isolation has been found to predict lifetime change in IQ36 and changes in depressive symptoms37,38 beyond what could be predicted by objective isolation.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Gow AJ Social support and successful aging: Investigating the relationship between lifetime cognitive change and life satisfaction Journal of Individual Differences 2007 28 103 115 source
- Not checked yetcites [37] Cacioppo JT Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses Psychology and aging 2006 21 140 151 16594799 source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Cacioppo JT Hawkley LC Thisted RA Perceived social isolation makes me sad: 5-year cross-lagged analyses of loneliness and depressive symptomatology in the Chicago Health, Aging, and Social Relations Study Psychology and aging 2010 25 453 463 20545429 PMC2922929 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the effects of perceived isolation in these longitudinal studies share much in common with the effects of experimental manipulations of isolation in nonhuman social species: increased tonic sympathetic tonus and HPA activation and decreased inflammatory control and immunity; expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid responses; and glucocorticoid resistance.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Cacioppo JT Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses Psychology and aging 2006 21 140 151 16594799 source
- Not checked yetcites [22] Cacioppo JT Hawkley LC Perceived social isolation and cognition Trends in cognitive sciences 2009 13 447 454 19726219 PMC2752489 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Evidence from behavioral and fMRI studies suggest that social isolation increases attention to negative social stimuli (e.g., social threats) as well as increased motivation to reconnect.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Cacioppo JT In the eye of the beholder: individual differences in perceived social isolation predict regional brain activation to social stimuli Journal of cognitive neuroscience 2009 21 83 92 18476760 PMC2810252 source
- Not checked yetcites [48] Yamada M Decety J Unconscious affective processing and empathy: an investigation of subliminal priming on the detection of painful facial expressions Pain 2009 143 71 75 19254825 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Perceived (but not objective) social isolation has also been associated with gene expression—specifically, the under-expression of genes bearing anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid response elements and over-expression of genes bearing response elements for pro-inflammatory NK-κB/Rel transcription factors.32”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] Cole SW Social regulation of gene expression in human leukocytes Genome biology 2007 8 R189 17854483 PMC2375027 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“increases the 24 hour urinary catecholamines levels and evidence of oxidative stress in the aortic arch of the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit;19”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Nation DA The effect of social environment on markers of vascular oxidative stress and inflammation in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit Psychosomatic medicine 2008 70 269 275 18256340 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Recent research suggests that the social pain of loneliness evolved as a signal that one’s connections to others are weakening and to motivate the repair and maintenance of the connections to others that are needed for our health and well-being and for the survival of our genes.43”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] Cacioppo JT Patrick B Loneliness: Human nature and the need for social connection 2008 New York W. W. Norton & Company
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“increases obesity and Type 2 diabetes in mice;14”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] Nonogaki K Nozue K Oka Y Social isolation affects the development of obesity and type 2 diabetes in mice Endocrinology 2007 148 4658 4666 17640995 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Beyond what is predicted by objective isolation, perceived isolation predicts greater vascular resistance,26 elevated blood pressure,27,28 morning rise in cortisol,29 less salubrious sleep,28,30 and sedentary lifestyles.31”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [26] Cacioppo JT Loneliness and Health: Potential Mechanisms Psychosomatic Medicine 2002 64 407 417 12021415 source
- Not checked yetcites [27] Hawkley LC Loneliness is a unique predictor of age-related differences in systolic blood pressure Psychology and Aging 2006 21 152 164 16594800 source
- Not checked yetcites [28] Hawkley LC Preacher KJ Cacioppo JT Loneliness impairs daytime functioning but not sleep duration Health psychology: official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 2010 29 124 129 PMC2841303 20230084 source
- Not checked yetcites [29] Adam EK Day-to-day dynamics of experience--cortisol associations in a population-based sample of older adults Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2006 103 17058 17063 17075058 PMC1636578 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“decreases open field activity, increases in basal cortisol concentrations, and decreases in lymphocyte proliferation to mitogens in pigs;18”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Kanitz E Consequences of repeated early isolation in domestic piglets (Susscrofa) on their behavioural, neuroendocrine, and immunological responses Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 2004 18 35 45 14651945 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“increases infarct size and edema and decreases the post-stroke survival rate following experimentally induced stroke in mice due to elevated levels of proinflammatorycytokines;13”
§ Social isolation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] Karelina K Estrous phase alters social behavior in a polygynous but not a monogamous Peromyscus species Hormones and behavior 2010 58 193 199 20382149 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“An experience sampling study, in which participants were beeped randomly nine times per day for seven days, confirmed that the social interactions of individuals who feel isolated, in contrast to connected, were more negative and less satisfying, and such interactions contributed subsequently to more negative moods and interactions.41”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] Hawkley LC Preacher KJ Cacioppo JT Multilevel modeling of social interactions and mood in lonely and social connected individuals: the MacArthur Social Neuroscience Studies Oxford Handbook of Methods in Positive Psychology 2007 559 575
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Using signal detection analyses, they found that although the pain was more easily detected in dislikable than likable faces overall, lonely individuals were more sensitive (d’) to the presence of pain in dislikable faces than were nonlonely individuals.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] Yamada M Decety J Unconscious affective processing and empathy: an investigation of subliminal priming on the detection of painful facial expressions Pain 2009 143 71 75 19254825 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Using a modified emotional Stroop task, individuals who felt isolated, relative to those who felt connected, showed greater Stroop interference, specifically for negative social relative to negative non-social words.47 No differences were found in Stroop interference for positive social relative to positive non-social words.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Cacioppo JT In the eye of the beholder: individual differences in perceived social isolation predict regional brain activation to social stimuli Journal of cognitive neuroscience 2009 21 83 92 18476760 PMC2810252 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Experimental manipulation of social isolation39 and imagined future isolation40 result in cognitive and behavioral changes even though objective isolation is not altered in these experimental studies.”
§ Social isolation > Social isolation in humans
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Cacioppo JT Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective Journal of Research in Personality 2006 40 1054 1085 source
- Not checked yetcites [40] Baumeister RF Twenge JM Nuss CK Effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes: anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought Journal of personality and social psychology 2002 83 817 827 12374437 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) to isolation are attenuated in a dose-related fashion by anxiolytics that act on benzodiazepine and serotonin receptors and are exaggerated by anxiogenics such as the benzodiazepine receptor partial inverse agonist FG7142.64”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [64] Brunelli SA Hofer MA Selective breeding for an infantile phenotype (isolation calling): A window on development processes Handbook of Behavioral Neurobiology 2001 433 482 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of isolation, the signal is a prompt to be alert to social threats (predator evasion) and to renew the connections we need to survive and prosper.”
§ Social isolation > Summary
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As a consequence, no single level of intensity of USVs to isolation is universally best, and heritable individual differences in this predisposition exist in the population.”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [45] Hofer MA Developmental neuroscience Handbook of Neuroscience for the Behavioral Sciences 2009 12 31 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“After 25 generations of selective breeding, differences in behavior between the two lines of rats were reminiscent of some of the differences observed in humans who are high or low in perceived isolation:22 the high, relative to low, USV line showed more distress to isolation as an infant; greater latency to play as an adolescent; and greater depression-like behaviors, greater anxiety-like Behavi”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Brunelli S Hofer MA Selective breeding for infant rat separation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations: Developmental precursors of passive and active coping styles Behavioural brain research 2007 182 193 17543397 PMC2759113 source
- Not checked yetcites [22] Cacioppo JT Hawkley LC Perceived social isolation and cognition Trends in cognitive sciences 2009 13 447 454 19726219 PMC2752489 source
- Not checked yetcites [45] Hofer MA Developmental neuroscience Handbook of Neuroscience for the Behavioral Sciences 2009 12 31 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, perceived isolation in humans represents a complex phenotype, so attachment may not represent its sole evolutionary basis.”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Neuroanatomical studies reviewed by Hofer45 point to the periaquaductal grey area as a neural substrate for these USVs in rats and the hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex as the neural substrates for isolation calls in primates.”
§ Social isolation > Heritability
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [45] Hofer MA Developmental neuroscience Handbook of Neuroscience for the Behavioral Sciences 2009 12 31 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Humans need others to survive and prosper.
“In ontogeny and phylogeny, humans need others to survive and prosper.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The presence of others, even ostensive friends, may constitute a social threat at any moment in time.
“Given shifting alliances and malleable social hierarchies, the presence of others, even ostensive friends, may constitute a social threat at any moment in time.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The objective presence of others is not sufficient to ensure the social connections needed for human survival and prosperity.
“The objective presence of others, therefore, is not sufficient to ensure the social connections needed for human survival and prosperity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Early in human history, survival and prosperity depended on banding together in couples, families, and tribes for mutual protection and assistance.
“Early in our history as a species, we survived and prospered only by banding together—in couples, in families, in tribes—to provide mutual protection and assistance.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“as well as physiologic responses, including increased blood pressure and heightened inflammatory reactivity to stress [30–34].”
From Examining social isolation and loneliness in combination in relation to social support and psychological distress using Canadian Longitudinal Study of Aging (CLSA) data (2020) · cites this paper as [32]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“a number of recent studies indicate that people's perceptions of social isolation (i.e., how lonely they feel)—a variable that we assessed in this study, which did not influence our results—are a more powerful determinant of well-being than objective social isolation [25].”
From Facebook Use Predicts Declines in Subjective Well-Being in Young Adults (2013) · cites this paper as [25]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Because loneliness has been shown to predict both mental and physical health challenges (Cacioppo et al., 2011, Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017), these findings also provide new insights for interventions.”
From Young Adult Adaptability to the Social Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Protective Role of Friendships (2022) · cites this paper as Cacioppo et al., 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“high self-reported loneliness in humans has been associated with elevated daily cortisol output62–66 and a flattening of diurnal cortisol rhythm65, suggesting poor regulation of the HPA axis67.”
From Neural mechanisms of social homeostasis (2019) · cites this paper as [67]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Health behaviors and physiologic mechanisms are likely, in part, responsible for the negative health outcomes associated with social isolation and loneliness [31–34].”
Citations
Cites
Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-analytic Review
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316 · Cited by 7,272 · cited 1×
“21,22 Among the findings in this research are that (1) perceived social isolation is a more important determinant of deleterious outcomes than is the variation in objective social isolation that is seen in populationbased studies; and (2) the effects of perceived isolation in these longitudinal studies share much in c…”
Social Relationships and Health
House, J. S., Landis, K. R., & Umberson, D. (1988) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3399889 · Cited by 7,073
Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI Study of Social Exclusion
Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1089134 · Cited by 3,849
Cacioppo, J. T., Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Thisted, R. A. (2006) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.140 · Cited by 2,380
Self-citationPerceived social isolation and cognition
Cacioppo, J. T., & Hawkley, L. C. (2009) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.06.005 · Cited by 2,144
Self-citationThe Neural Basis of Altruistic Punishment
de Quervain, D. J.-F., Fischbacher, U., Treyer, V., Schellhammer, M., Schnyder, U., Buck, A., & Fehr, E. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1100735 · Cited by 1,768
Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., & Thisted, R. A. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0017216 · Cited by 1,757
Self-citationLoneliness: human nature and the need for social connection
(2008) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-1765 · Cited by 1,572
Self-citationA neural basis for social cooperation
Rilling, J. K., Gutman, D. A., Zeh, T. R., Pagnoni, G., Berns, G. S., & Kilts, C. D. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00755-9 · Cited by 1,451
Reward representations and reward-related learning in the human brain: Insights from neuroimaging
O’Doherty, J. P. (2004) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2004.10.016 · Cited by 1,426
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- 10.2307/2136848 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1016/0277-9536(92)90259-S · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1093/geronb/63.6.S375 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/a0014400 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.140 · DOI · Paper page
- Cacioppo J.T., Handbook of Social Exclusion
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Leigh-Hunt, N., Bagguley, D., Bash, K., Turner, V., Turnbull, S., Valtorta, N., & Caan, W. (2017) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2017.07.035 · Cited by 2,158
Facebook Use Predicts Declines in Subjective Well-Being in Young Adults
Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., Shablack, H., Jonides, J., & Ybarra, O. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069841 · Cited by 1,596
Loneliness in Older Persons: A Predictor of Functional Decline and Death
Perissinotto, C. M., Stijacic Cenzer, I., & Covinsky, K. E. (2012) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2012.1993 · Cited by 1,269
Social relationships and health: The toxic effects of perceived social isolation
Cacioppo, J. T., & Cacioppo, S. (2014) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12087 · Cited by 1,057
Self-citationAllen, K., Kern, M. L., Rozek, C. S., McInerney, D. M., & Slavich, G. M. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1883409 · Cited by 1,283
Metadata
- Authors
- Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., Norman, G. J., & Berntson, G. G.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cacioppo, John T.
- Venue
- Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2011-06-08
- Volume
- 1231
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 17-22
- ISSN
- 0077-8923 (ISSN-L)
- 1749-6632
- PMC
- PMC3166409
- OpenAlex
- W2332324138
- Cited by
- 554
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 1.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999)
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG033590, R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Keywords
- social isolation, social behavior, social danger, predator escape, social connectedness, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, sympathetic nervous system, inflammation, immunity, sleep, glucocorticoid response, gene expression, aging, morbidity and mortality
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Animals, Behavior, Animal, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Interpersonal Relations, Loneliness, Mental Health, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Quality of Life, Social Isolation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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