The future of memory: remembering, imagining, and the brain
Open accessAbstract
During the past few years, there has been a dramatic increase in research examining the role of memory in imagination and future thinking. This work has revealed striking similarities between remembering the past and imagining or simulating the future, including the finding that a common brain network underlies both memory and imagination. Here, we discuss a number of key points that have emerged during recent years, focusing in particular on the importance of distinguishing between temporal and nontemporal factors in analyses of memory and imagination, the nature of differences between remembering the past and imagining the future, the identification of component processes that comprise the default network supporting memory-based simulations, and the finding that this network can couple flexibly with other networks to support complex goal-directed simulations. This growing area of research has broadened our conception of memory by highlighting the many ways in which memory supports adaptive functioning.
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Visual imagery may be an essential and unifying representational format potentiating episodic simulation processes.
“suggest that visual imagery may be an essential and unifying representational format potentiating these processes.”
From A cognitive profile of multi-sensory imagery, memory and dreaming in aphantasia (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
In “Neural and cognitive similarities: A brief summary” (page unavailable), the paper describes scene construction as a critical component of remembering and imagining. It distinguishes that process from simple visual imagery, however, and does not identify visual imagery itself as an essential, unifying representational format that potentiates episodic simulation. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe default network shows robust activation when people imagine future experiences.
“The default network has shown robust activation when people imagine future experiences [14, 22–23].”
From Creative Cognition and Brain Network Dynamics (2016) · cites this paper as [23]
Some key issues remain controversial, including the nature of hippocampal contributions to episodic future thinking and the extent to which neural and cognitive signatures of episodic future thinking are specific to imagining future experiences as opposed to atemporal imagining or imagining counterfactuals to past experiences.
“Some key issues remain controversial, such as the nature of hippocampal contributions to episodic future thinking, and the related question of the extent to which neural and cognitive signatures of episodic future thinking are specific to imagining future experiences as opposed to atemporal imagining or imagining counterfactuals to past experiences”
From Episodic Future Thinking: Mechanisms and Functions (2017) · cites this paper as [4]
Episodic memory may be recruited for additional tasks where particular details of past experiences are leveraged to generate, or assemble and maintain, mental content that incorporates specific elements of prior events.
“Studies on this topic have indicated that episodic memory may be recruited for additional tasks where particular details of past experiences are leveraged to generate, or assemble and maintain, mental content that incorporates specific elements of prior events.”
From Neural Mechanisms of Episodic Retrieval Support Divergent Creative Thinking (2019) · cites this paper as Schacter et al. 2012
During the past decade, episodic memory and its neural processes have been found to be engaged during tasks beyond simple remembering, such as future thinking or simulation, decision making, and problem solving.
“Strikingly, during the past decade, episodic memory, and the neural processes that support it, have been found to be engaged during tasks beyond simple remembering that may also involve the retrieval and reconstruction of episodic details for completion, such as future thinking or simulation, decision making, and problem solving (for review, see Schacter et al. 2012;Moscovitch et al. 2016;Schacter”
From Neural Mechanisms of Episodic Retrieval Support Divergent Creative Thinking (2019) · cites this paper as Schacter et al. 2012
Engagement of the hippocampus (and core network more broadly) is exhibited during generative tasks that nominally involve the retrieval and reconstruction of episodic details for completion, such as simulation, decision making, and problem solving.
“Recent conceptual work has suggested that engagement of the hippocampus (and core network more broadly) is exhibited during generative tasks that nominally involve the retrieval and reconstruction of episodic details for completion, such as simulation, decision making, and problem solving”
From Neural Mechanisms of Episodic Retrieval Support Divergent Creative Thinking (2019) · cites this paper as Schacter et al. 2012
The default mode network is associated with cognitive processes that require internally-directed or self-generated thought, such as mind-wandering, future thinking, perspective taking, and mental simulation.
“The DMN is associated with cognitive processes that require internally-directed or self-generated thought, such as mind-wandering10, future thinking11, perspective taking12, and mental simulation13.”
From Default and executive network coupling supports creative idea production (2015) · cites this paper as [11]
The same brain activation patterns are generated when people imagine the future as when they remember the past.
“Indeed, functional magnetic resonance imaging studies on healthy subjects reveal that the same brain activation patterns are generated when people imagine the future as when they remember the past [21–24]”
From Is episodic-like memory <i>like</i> episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [24]
People tend to remember better life-episodes that are distinct and personally meaningful and relate to the self or self-consciousness.
“It has been well demonstrated that people tend to remember better those life-episodes, which are distinct and personally meaningful and, of importance for the present study, relate to the self or self-consciousness [21,24,28,30,124–126].”
From First-person view of one’s body in immersive virtual reality: Influence on episodic memory (2019) · cites this paper as [24]
These regions, including RSC, form a network that mediates both prospective thought and episodic memory.
“These regions, including RSC, are believed to form a network that mediates both prospective thought and episodic memory49.”
From Anchoring the neural compass: coding of local spatial reference frames in human medial parietal lobe (2014) · cites this paper as [49]
Hippocampus and vmPFC are part of a MTL subsystem of the default network that supports the formation of mental models based on mnemonic content during both memory retrieval and the simulation and encoding of future events.
“Hippocampus and vmPFC are part of a MTL subsystem of the default network (74) that supports the formation of mental models based on mnemonic content during both memory retrieval and the simulation and encoding of future events (36, 75, 76).”
From Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory (2013) · cites this paper as [36]
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“Although this issue was addressed in several early studies of episodic future thinking (for review, see [4]), novel approaches have appeared during the past few years [42 ,50,51].”
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- Authors
- Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., Hassabis, D., Martin, V. C., Spreng, R. N., & Szpunar, K. K.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Auckland (NZ)
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit (GB)
- Cornell University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Neuron
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 76
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 677-694
- ISSN
- 0896-6273 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3815616
- OpenAlex
- W2166620359
- Cited by
- 1,398
- References
- 224
- Citations by year
- 2026: 75 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 97 · 2023: 103 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 194 · 2019: 106 · 2018: 115 · 2017: 108 · 2016: 104 · 2015: 78 · 2014: 82 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 5.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (vor, 385 d)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
- Locations
- Neuron (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH060941)
- National Institute on Aging (AG08441)
- Wellcome Trust
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- memory, imagination, future thinking, default mode network, artificial neural networks, adaptive cognition
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Humans, Imagination, Memory, Time Factors
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