Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We Already Know to Take Action

In the paper

“By age 21, individuals in the intervention group had fewer symptoms of depression, lower marijuana use, a more active lifestyle, and significant educational and vocational advantages compared to the controls [15,16].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [15] Campbell, 2008, Young adult outcomes of the Abecedarian and CARE early childhood educational interventions, Early Child. Res. Q. source
• Not checked yetcites [16] McLaughlin, 2007, Depressive Symptoms in Young Adults: The Influences of the Early Home Environment and Early Educational Child Care, Child Dev. source

In the paper

“At age 10, children who received the intervention did not have higher IQ scores than the children in the control condition, but they had higher achievement test scores”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [14] Heckman, 2006, Skill Formation and the Economics of Investing in Disadvantaged Children, Science source

In the paper

“At age 40, the intervention group also had better overall health and engaged in fewer risky behaviors (driving without seat belt, smoking, illicit use of sedatives, marijuana, LSD, cocaine, heroin) although there were no differences in medical conditions [13].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [13] Muennig, 2009, Effects of a prekindergarten educational intervention on adult health: 37-year follow-up results of a randomized controlled trial, Am. J. Public Health source

In the paper

“At age 40, the intervention group had higher income, high school completion, college graduation, health insurance coverage and home ownership and lower rates of crime, out-of-wedlock births, and welfare assistance compared to the controls [13].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [13] Muennig, 2009, Effects of a prekindergarten educational intervention on adult health: 37-year follow-up results of a randomized controlled trial, Am. J. Public Health source

In the paper

“state EITCs increased birth weights and reduced maternal smoking [25].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [25] Strully, 2010, Effects of Prenatal Poverty on Infant Health: State Earned Income Tax Credits and Birth Weight, Am. Sociol. Rev. source

In the paper

“a one percent increase in smoking and obesity rates was associated with an increase of one and two deaths per 100,000 population, respectively.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [23] Kim, 2009, Effects of U.S. States’ Social Welfare Systems on Population Health, Policy Stud. J. source

In the paper

“a dollar increase in the minimum wage above the federal minimum was associated with a 1% to 2% decrease in low birth weight and a 4% decrease in post-neonatal mortality.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [26] Komro, 2016, The Effect of an Increased Minimum Wage on Infant Mortality and Birth Weight, Am. J. Public Health source

In the paper

“both the initial implementation of the program and later increases in the level of benefits were associated with mortality declines for the elderly [27].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [27] Arno, 2011, Social security and mortality: The role of income support policies and population health in the United States, J. Public Health Policy source

In the paper

“income from EITC reduced the rate of low birth weight and increased mean birth weight, with the associations being larger for blacks than for whites [24].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [24] Hoynes, H.W., Miller, D.L., and Simon, D. (2012). Income, the Earned Income Tax Credit, and Infant Health. Natl. Bur. Econ. Res. Work. Pap. Ser., No. 18206. source

In the paper

“The study found declining rates of deviant and aggressive behavior among adolescents whose families received additional income, with the level of psychiatric symptoms for those who had received the cash supplements for four years being similar to those of adolescents who had never been poor [28].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [28] Costello, 2003, Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment, J. Am. Med. Assoc. source

In the paper

“By their mid-30s, the children who received the intervention had lower levels of multiple risk factors of cardiovascular and metabolic disease with the effects being stronger for males than for females [17].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [17] Campbell, 2014, Early childhood investments substantially boost adult health, Science source

In the paper

“adults who were raised in poor families complete fewer years of school, earn lower incomes, and are more likely to be poor in adulthood relative to adults who do not come from a poor family [21].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [21] Corcoran, 1995, Rags to rags: Poverty and mobility in the United States, Annu. Rev. Sociol. source

In the paper

“subgroup analyses revealed that this effect was present only for those in the youngest cohort (age 12 when the supplements began) who had had the longest exposure to the additional income with no effect of income evident in the two older cohorts who were age 14 and age 16 at the time of the initial supplement.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [29] Costello, 2010, Association of Family Income Supplements in Adolescence With Development of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders in Adulthood Among an American Indian Population, J. Am. Med. Assoc. source

In the paper

“a one percent increase in smoking and obesity rates was associated with an increase of one and two deaths per 100,000 population, respectively.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [23] Kim, 2009, Effects of U.S. States’ Social Welfare Systems on Population Health, Policy Stud. J. source

In the paper

“In 2017, 33% of American Indian children, 33% of African American children, 26% of Hispanic children, 11% of Asian and Pacific Islander children, and 11% of white children lived in households below the poverty line [20].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [20] Annie, E. (2019, January 04). Casey Foundation. Children in Poverty by Race and Ethnicity. Available online: https://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/44-children-in-poverty-by-race-and-ethnicity#detailed/1/any/false/871,870,573,869,36,868,867,133,38,35/10,11,9,12,1,185,13/324,323.

In the paper

“U.S. states with higher spending on education, greater public expenditures, less regressive taxes, and more generous welfare policies (as reflected in Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) and Medicaid program rules) had better health as measured by lower death rates, with the effects being stronger for overall mortality than for infant mortality [23].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [23] Kim, 2009, Effects of U.S. States’ Social Welfare Systems on Population Health, Policy Stud. J. source

In the paper

“ending racial residential segregation would completely eliminate racial differences, among young adults, in income, education, and unemployment and reduce gaps in single motherhood by two-thirds [36].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [36] Cutler, 1997, Are ghettos good or bad?, Q. J. Econ. source

In the paper

“during 1965–1974 black women had larger gains in life expectancy than black men and white men and women, with the life expectancy increase for black women during this period being three times as large as those in the decade before [32].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [32] Schoeni, R.F., House, J.S., Kaplan, G.A., and Pollack, H. (2008). Lifting Gates–Lengthening Lives: Did Civil Rights Policies Improve the Health of African-American Woman in the 1960s and 1970s?. Making Americans Healthier: Social and Economic Policy as Health Policy, Russell Sage Foundation Publications.

In the paper

“black women born between 1967 and 1969 had better health status as adults and were less likely to have low-birth weight infants and infants with low APGAR scores than those born between 1961 and 1963 [34].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [34] Almond, D., and Chay, K.Y. (2006). The Long-Run and Intergenerational Impact of Poor Infant Health: Evidence from Cohorts Born During the Civil Rights Era, University of California-Berkeley.

In the paper

“between 1968 and 1978, both black males and females, aged 35-74, had larger absolute and relative declines in mortality than their white counterparts, with the mortality declines being larger for black women than black men [33].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [33] Cooper, 1981, Improved mortality among U.S. blacks, 1968-1978: The role of antiracist struggle, Int. J. Health Serv. source

In the paper

“these interventions can increase income, improve safety and security and improve physical and mental health.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [52] Turner, M.A., and Rawlings Lynette, A. (2005). Overcoming Concentrated Poverty and Isolation: Lessons from Three HUD Demonstration Initiatives, Urban Institute.

In the paper

“Two years later, compared to those residents who had stayed, those who moved reported better health (overall health and lower levels of substance abuse), higher neighborhood quality (lower neighborhood disorder and violence and higher levels of satisfaction with public transportation, recreation facilities and medical care) and improved economic outcomes (higher rates of employment and lower rates”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [46] Fauth, 2004, Short-term effects of moving from public housing in poor- to middle-class neighborhoods on low-income, minority adults’ outcomes, Soc. Sci. Med. source

In the paper

“military service has provided disadvantaged black men increased education, higher earnings and greater occupational mobility than their civilian peers [37].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [37] Teachman, 2007, Race, military service, and marital timing: Evidence from the NLSY-79, Demography source

In the paper

“They are also more likely to become sexually active at a younger age, use illegal drugs, and engage in illegal activities [41].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [41] Antecol, 2007, Does single parenthood increase the probability of teenage promiscuity, substance use, and crime?, J. Popul. Econ. source

In the paper

“active duty military service promotes marriage over cohabitation, increases the likelihood of first marriage, and leads to greater stability of marriage and all of these effects were greater for blacks than for whites [37,38,39].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [37] Teachman, 2007, Race, military service, and marital timing: Evidence from the NLSY-79, Demography source
• Not checked yetcites [38] Teachman, 2008, Divorce, race, and military service: More than equal pay and equal opportunity, J. Marriage Fam. source
• Not checked yetcites [39] Teachman, 2009, Military Service, Race, and the Transition to Marriage and Cohabitation, J. Fam. Issues source

In the paper

“civil rights policies led to increases in employment and wages that narrowed the black-white economic gap with the gains being larger for black women than for black men [32].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [32] Schoeni, R.F., House, J.S., Kaplan, G.A., and Pollack, H. (2008). Lifting Gates–Lengthening Lives: Did Civil Rights Policies Improve the Health of African-American Woman in the 1960s and 1970s?. Making Americans Healthier: Social and Economic Policy as Health Policy, Russell Sage Foundation Publications.

In the paper

“children raised in single-parent homes perform more poorly in school, and are less likely to graduate from high school [40].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [40] Sandefur, 1992, The effects of parental marital status during adolescence on high school graduation, Soc. Forces source

In the paper

“Rigorous evaluation of the HCZ has shown that it eliminated racial gaps in academic achievement and was successful in improving housing conditions and childhood asthma outcomes [50,51].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [50] Spielman, 2006, Interdisciplinary planning for healthier communities: Findings from the Harlem Children’s Zone Asthma Initiative, J. Am. Plann. Assoc. source
• Not checked yetcites [51] Dobbie, W., and Fryer, R.G. (2009). Are High Quality Schools Enough to Close the Achievement Gap? Evidence from a Social Experiment in Harlem, National Bureau of Economic Research. source

In the paper

“A randomized controlled trial (RCT) with these low income households in which children with asthma were present found that the program was effective in reducing asthma symptoms and urgent health care use among the children, and in improving quality-of-life among the adults who cared for them [48].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [48] Krieger, 2005, The Seattle-King County Healthy Homes Project: A randomized, controlled trial of a community health worker intervention to decrease exposure to indoor asthma triggers, Am. J. Public Health source

In the paper

“Improving health of disadvantaged groups and reducing gaps in health requires changing systems to improve conditions that determine health in homes, schools, neighborhoods, workplaces, houses of worship and other social contexts.”

In the paper

“Reducing inequities in health requires dismantling the systems that initiate and sustain inequities in a broad range of societal institutions that are the drivers of inequities in health.”

In the paper

“Racism is an organized societal system, in which the dominant racial group, based on a hierarchy of human value, categorizes and ranks people into social groups called “races”, and uses its power to devalue, disempower, and differentially allocate societal resources and opportunities to groups defined as inferior [8,9].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [8] Bonilla-Silva, E. (1997). Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. Am. Sociol. Rev., 465–480. source
• Not checked yetcites [9] Williams, D.R., Lawrence, J.A., and Davis, B.A. (2019). Racism and Health: Evidence and Needed Research. Annu. Rev. Public Health. source

In the paper

“despite progress in reducing inequities over time, racial gaps in health persist.”

In the paper

“structural or institutional racism (we use these terms interchangeably) exists within, and is reinforced and supported by multiple societal systems, including the housing market, the education system, the labor market, the criminal justice system, credit markets, the economy and the health care system.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [12] Reskin, 2012, The Race Discrimination System, Annu. Rev. Sociol. source

In the paper

“the economies of some of our peer nations produce child poverty rates similar to the U.S., but those societies have developed policies to markedly reduce child poverty.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [22] UNICEF (2012). Measuring Child Poverty: New League Tables of Child Poverty in the World’s Rich Countries, UNICEF.

In the paper

“Some limited research also indicates that income supplementation to racial minorities can lead to improved health and the reduction of at least some racial differences in health.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [28] Costello, 2003, Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment, J. Am. Med. Assoc. source
• Not checked yetcites [29] Costello, 2010, Association of Family Income Supplements in Adolescence With Development of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders in Adulthood Among an American Indian Population, J. Am. Med. Assoc. source
• Not checked yetcites [30] Akee, 2010, Parents’ Incomes and Children’s Outcomes: A Quasi-experiment Using Transfer Payments from Casino Profits, Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ. source

In the paper

“the mid 1960s to the mid 1970s was a period in which the health of African Americans improved more rapidly than the health of whites so that there was a narrowing of the black-white gap in health.”

In the paper

“Given that virtually every health-enhancing resource is linked to where one lives in the U.S.”

In the paper

“There are multiple examples that illustrate that neighborhood transformation is possible and is associated with improved health.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [46] Fauth, 2004, Short-term effects of moving from public housing in poor- to middle-class neighborhoods on low-income, minority adults’ outcomes, Soc. Sci. Med. source
• Not checked yetcites [47] Krieger, 2002, Housing and health: Time again for public health action, Am. J. Public Health source
• Not checked yetcites [48] Krieger, 2005, The Seattle-King County Healthy Homes Project: A randomized, controlled trial of a community health worker intervention to decrease exposure to indoor asthma triggers, Am. J. Public Health source

In the paper

“Civil rights policies are an example of a large-scale economic initiative that led to improved health for blacks and reduced black-white disparities in health.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [31] Hahn, 2018, Civil rights as determinants of public health and racial and ethnic health equity: Health care, education, employment, and housing in the United States, SSM Popul. Health source
• Not checked yetcites [32] Schoeni, R.F., House, J.S., Kaplan, G.A., and Pollack, H. (2008). Lifting Gates–Lengthening Lives: Did Civil Rights Policies Improve the Health of African-American Woman in the 1960s and 1970s?. Making Americans Healthier: Social and Economic Policy as Health Policy, Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
• Not checked yetcites [33] Cooper, 1981, Improved mortality among U.S. blacks, 1968-1978: The role of antiracist struggle, Int. J. Health Serv. source

In the paper

“A recent analysis of the costs of this program revealed that although it would increase the demand for healthcare services by about 12%, the implementation of the program could realize cost savings of about 19%, which would reduce overall healthcare costs by about 9.6% [61].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [61] Pollin, R., Heintz, J., Arno, P., Wicks-Lim, J., and Ash, M. (2018). Economic Analysis of Medicare for All, Political Economy Research Institute, University of Massachusetts.

In the paper

“Several aspects of primary care appear to contribute to this: primary care increases access of disadvantaged populations, provides an emphasis on preventive care and the early management of disease, encourages high quality care, more appropriate care and reduces unnecessary specialty care [63].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [63] Starfield, 2005, Contribution of primary care to health systems and health, Milbank Q. source

In the paper

“This highlights the importance of early intervention and/or the need of minimal thresholds of exposure to the new environment before positive effects are evident.”

In the paper

“The annual bill for the screening and treatment program was $7 million but the annual savings from reduced incidence of CRC was $8.5 million.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [59] Grubbs, 2013, Eliminating racial disparities in colorectal cancer in the real world: It took a village, J. Clin. Oncol. source

In the paper

“By 2009, colonoscopy screening rates had increased by 54% for blacks and 29% for whites and the racial gap in screening was eliminated.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [59] Grubbs, 2013, Eliminating racial disparities in colorectal cancer in the real world: It took a village, J. Clin. Oncol. source

In the paper

“Importantly, they guide our expectations and social interactions with others and can become harmful when assumptions and generalizations about a group affect our interactions with an individual.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [69] American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Preventing Discrimination and Promoting Diversity (2012). Dual Pathways to a Better America: Preventing Discrimination and promoting Diversity, American Psychological Association.

In the paper

“in the Yonkers Housing Intervention, compared to poor residents who did not move, movers had weaker social ties in their new neighborhoods and smaller networks of neighborhood-based friends [56].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [56] Fauth, 2008, Seven years later: Effects of a neighborhood mobility program on poor Black and Latino adults’ well-being, J. Health Soc. Behav. source

In the paper

“The mortality gap was almost eliminated by 2009 with a mortality decline of 42% for blacks and 13% for whites.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [59] Grubbs, 2013, Eliminating racial disparities in colorectal cancer in the real world: It took a village, J. Clin. Oncol. source

In the paper

“In 2006 the rate of in-hospital death was 248 percent higher for Black women, 50 percent higher for Hispanic women, and 69 percent higher for Asian/Pacific Islander women than for White women.”

• Also stated in: § 3.3. Eliminating Inequities in the Receipt of High Quality Care · plain

  “In 2015, the rate for Blacks was 193 percent higher and the rate for Hispanics was 31 percent higher than the rate for Whites.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [68] Fingar, K.R., Hambrick, M.M., Heslin, K.C., and Moore, J.E. (2019, January 04). Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Statistical Briefs: Trends and Disparities in Delivery Hospitalizations Involving Severe Maternal Morbidity, 2006–2015: Statistical Brief #243, Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532465/#sb243.s1.

In the paper

“the elementary school was transformed from one of the worst performing among Atlanta public schools to one of the best performing in the state, even though 74% of the students qualify for free and reduced price lunch.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [57] Andrews, N.O., and Erickson, D.J. (2012). It Takes a Neighborhood: Purpose Built Communities and Neighborhood Transformation. Investing in What Works for America’s Communities, Federal Reserve Bank of San Franciso and Low Income Investment Fund.

In the paper

“Thus, a renewed emphasis on prevention could have an enormous impact on improving overall health and reducing inequities in health.”

In the paper

“Research reveals that these implicit biases are normal, natural, subtle and often subconscious [69].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [69] American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Preventing Discrimination and Promoting Diversity (2012). Dual Pathways to a Better America: Preventing Discrimination and promoting Diversity, American Psychological Association.

In the paper

“Racial disparities in in-hospital maternal mortality decreased between 2006 and 2015, but significant disparities remain [68].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [68] Fingar, K.R., Hambrick, M.M., Heslin, K.C., and Moore, J.E. (2019, January 04). Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Statistical Briefs: Trends and Disparities in Delivery Hospitalizations Involving Severe Maternal Morbidity, 2006–2015: Statistical Brief #243, Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532465/#sb243.s1.

In the paper

“It is estimated that although 75% of health care dollars in the U.S. is spent on preventable conditions, only 3% of America’s health care expenditure is on prevention [58].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [58] Forsberg, V., and Fichtenberg, C. (2012). The Prevention and Public Health Fund: A Critical Investment in Our Nation’s Physical and Fiscal Health, Center for Public Health Policy, American Public Health Association.

In the paper

“Moreover, they are universal, all humans have them, with even the most well-meaning individual capable of harboring deep-seated biases.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [69] American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Preventing Discrimination and Promoting Diversity (2012). Dual Pathways to a Better America: Preventing Discrimination and promoting Diversity, American Psychological Association.

In the paper

“Access to primary care is associated with smaller social disparities in health and is a likely determinant of the unexpectedly good health profiles of countries like Cuba and Costa Rica [63].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [63] Starfield, 2005, Contribution of primary care to health systems and health, Milbank Q. source

In the paper

“Research reveals that a greater emphasis on person-focused primary care (instead of disease-focused care) would better address the health care needs of patients and reduce inequities in health [62].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [62] Starfield, 2012, Clinical Care and Health Disparities, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

In the paper

“Ten years after the implementation of this model in East Lake Atlanta, crime had declined by 73% and violent crime by 90% [57].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [57] Andrews, N.O., and Erickson, D.J. (2012). It Takes a Neighborhood: Purpose Built Communities and Neighborhood Transformation. Investing in What Works for America’s Communities, Federal Reserve Bank of San Franciso and Low Income Investment Fund.

In the paper

“In 1995, the cumulative incidence of LDKT at 2 years after appearing on the waiting list was 7.0% among white patients, 3.4% among black patients, 6.8% among Hispanic patients, and 5.1% among Asian patients.”

• Also stated in: § 3.3. Eliminating Inequities in the Receipt of High Quality Care · plain

  “In 2014, the cumulative incidence of LDKT was 11.4% among white patients, 2.9% among black patients, 5.9% among Hispanic patients, and 5.6% among Asian patients.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [67] Purnell, 2018, Association of Race and Ethnicity With Live Donor Kidney Transplantation in the United States From 1995 to 2014, JAMA source

In the paper

“completely eliminated that disparity for Asian Americans, Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders, but not for other racial groups [60]”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [60] Park, 2018, Health insurance for asian americans, native hawaiians, and pacific islanders under the affordable care act, JAMA Intern. Med. source

In the paper

“For example, more implicit bias was associated with less patient-centered dialogue, lower patient positive affect, lower perception of respect from the clinician, less patient liking of the clinician and lower trust and confidence in clinician”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [74] Cooper, 2012, The Associations of Clinicians’ Implicit Attitudes About Race With Medical Visit Communication and Patient Ratings of Interpersonal Care, Am. J. Public Health source

In the paper

“The study found that these strategies reduced bias in participants and that this effect remained evident three months later.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [77] Devine, 2012, Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. source

In the paper

“Analyses of data from a large, volunteer and non-representative sample of persons who took the Implicit Association Test (IAT), a widely used test to assess the presence of implicit bias, concluded that about 70 percent of physicians have an implicit preference for whites over blacks, similar to the pattern observed for other professionals and the general population [71].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [71] Sabin, 2009, Physicians’ Implicit and Explicit Attitudes About Race by MD Race, Ethnicity, and Gender, J. Health Care Poor Underserved source

In the paper

“Research reveals that higher implicit bias scores among physicians is associated with biased treatment recommendations in the care of black patients [66], although the pattern is not uniform [72].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [66] Burgess, 2011, The impact of racism on clinician cognition, behavior, and clinical decision making, Du Bois Rev. source
• Not checked yetcites [72] Haider, 2011, Association of unconscious race and social class bias with vignette-based clinical assessments by medical students, JAMA

In the paper

“A panel of the NAM has highlighted the enormous potential of the routine screening of all patients for the social determinants of health, as a part of comprehensively addressing the needs of patients [90].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [90] Adler, 2015, Patients in context--EHR capture of social and behavioral determinants of health, N. Engl. J. Med. source

In the paper

“The program cost less than $3000 per participant and provided a 10-fold return on investment via reduced healthcare utilization.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [87] Szanton, 2014, CAPABLE trial: A randomized controlled trial of nurse, occupational therapist and handyman to reduce disability among older adults: Rationale and design, Contemp. Clin. Trials source

In the paper

“Research also indicates that racial concordance between a patient and a clinician has been associated with better patient-provider communication and overall health outcomes, as well as higher levels of patient satisfaction with care and adherence to provider recommendations [92,93].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [92] Cooper, L.A., and Powe, N.R. (2004). Disparities in Patient Experiences, Health Care Processes, and Outcomes: The Role of Patient-Provider Racial, Ethnic, and Language Concordance, Commonwealth Fund (Publication #753).
• Not checked yetcites [93] Lightfoote, 2014, Improving diversity, inclusion, and representation in radiology and radiation oncology part 1: Why these matter, J. Am. Coll. Radiol. source

In the paper

“One study of university students documented that non-black adults could be motivated to increase their awareness of racial bias, their concerns about the effects of such bias and their willingness to implement strategies to reduce such bias [77].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [77] Devine, 2012, Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. source

In the paper

“For the 1968-69 school year, of the 9,863 first year medical school enrollees in the U.S., 266 (2.7%) were black, three (0.0%) were Native American, 20 (0.2%) were Mexican American and 3 (0.0%) were mainland Puerto Rican [95].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [95] Association of American Medical Colleges (2019, January 04). Diversity in Medical Education: Facts & Figures 2012 (Table 4). Available online: https://members.aamc.org/eweb/upload/Diversity%20in%20Medical%20Education%20Facts%20and%20Figures%202012.pdf.

In the paper

“These researchers viewed implicit biases as deeply engrained habits that can be replaced by learning multiple new prejudice-reducing strategies including stereotype replacement, counter-stereotype imaging, individuation, perspective taking and increasing interracial contact.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [77] Devine, 2012, Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. source

In the paper

“The study found that compared to placebo, propranolol eliminated implicit bias and reduced heart rate, but had no effect on explicit bias (measured by feeling thermometer: warmth towards blacks, whites, homosexuals, Muslims, Christians, drug addicts).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [75] Terbeck, 2012, Propranolol reduces implicit negative racial bias, Psychopharmacology source

In the paper

“Another study of providers who work in safety net clinics in a major metropolitan area found that provider implicit bias was associated with poorer quality of patient provider communication and lower patient evaluation of the quality of the medical encounter including provider nonverbal behavior [74].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [74] Cooper, 2012, The Associations of Clinicians’ Implicit Attitudes About Race With Medical Visit Communication and Patient Ratings of Interpersonal Care, Am. J. Public Health source

In the paper

“For mothers, the NFP led to lower smoking during pregnancy, fewer subsequent pregnancies, increased labor force participation, reduced use of public assistance programs, and lower rates of child abuse and neglect.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [82] Olds, 2006, The nurse–family partnership: An evidence-based preventive intervention, Infant Ment. Health Journal source
• Not checked yetcites [84] Olds, 2008, Preventing Child Maltreatment and Crime with Prenatal and Infancy Support of Parents: The Nurse-Family Partnership, J. Scand. Stud. Criminol. Crime Prev. source

In the paper

“In 2015, Asians were 19.8% (3701), African Americans were 5.7% (n = 10,610) and Latinos were 4.6% (n = 854) of medical school graduates [96].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [96] Association of American Medical Colleges (2019, January 04). Current Trends in Medical Education (Figures 17–18). Available online: http://www.aamcdiversityfactsandfigures2016.org/report-section/section-3/.

In the paper

“There were significant improvements in activities of daily living (ADLs) and independent activities of daily living (IADLs) and reductions in depressive symptoms.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [87] Szanton, 2014, CAPABLE trial: A randomized controlled trial of nurse, occupational therapist and handyman to reduce disability among older adults: Rationale and design, Contemp. Clin. Trials source

In the paper

“This research indicates that underrepresented minorities (URM) are more likely to work with underserved populations, with URM from the highest SES backgrounds working in under-served areas at higher rates than do white physicians from the lowest SES backgrounds [93].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [93] Lightfoote, 2014, Improving diversity, inclusion, and representation in radiology and radiation oncology part 1: Why these matter, J. Am. Coll. Radiol. source

In the paper

“Among the children, the program led to a reduction in childhood injuries, substance use and juvenile crime [82,84].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [82] Olds, 2006, The nurse–family partnership: An evidence-based preventive intervention, Infant Ment. Health Journal source
• Not checked yetcites [84] Olds, 2008, Preventing Child Maltreatment and Crime with Prenatal and Infancy Support of Parents: The Nurse-Family Partnership, J. Scand. Stud. Criminol. Crime Prev. source

In the paper

“Among URM graduates in 2015, females were the majority.”

• Also stated in: § 3.5. Diversifying the Healthcare Workforce · plain

  “Women made up 65% of black graduates, 53% of Hispanic graduates, 75% of Native American graduates and 60% of Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander graduates [96].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [96] Association of American Medical Colleges (2019, January 04). Current Trends in Medical Education (Figures 17–18). Available online: http://www.aamcdiversityfactsandfigures2016.org/report-section/section-3/.

In the paper

“Reviews of research in the U.S. indicate that CHW interventions have been effective in improving the control of high blood pressure and reducing cardiovascular risk, enhancing diabetes control, managing HIV infection, and increasing the uptake of cancer screening tests [88].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [88] Perry, 2014, Community health workers in low-, middle-, and high-income countries: An overview of their history, recent evolution, and current effectiveness, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

In the paper

“Implicit biases may affect not only medical decision making but also the quality of communication and nonverbal behavior [66].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [66] Burgess, 2011, The impact of racism on clinician cognition, behavior, and clinical decision making, Du Bois Rev. source

In the paper

“Only 20 (0.1%) American Indian or Alaska Natives and 5 Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders graduated from medical school in 2015.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [96] Association of American Medical Colleges (2019, January 04). Current Trends in Medical Education (Figures 17–18). Available online: http://www.aamcdiversityfactsandfigures2016.org/report-section/section-3/.

In the paper

“in national data, 70% of whites would support giving businesses and industry special tax breaks for locating “in poor and high unemployment areas” but only 43% of whites would support such initiatives in “largely black areas” [104].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [104] Marsden, P.B. (2012). The Real Record on Racial Attitudes. Social Trends in American Life: Findings from the General Social Survey Since 1972, Princeton University Press. source

In the paper

“This research has also documented that the racial ingroup bias is more pronounced among persons with higher implicit racial bias, individuals from cultures that are more collectivistic than individualistic in emphasis, and when individuals are exposed to harsh living conditions [110].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [110] Han, 2018, Neurocognitive Basis of Racial Ingroup Bias in Empathy, Trends Cogn. Sci. source

In the paper

“Public opinion research over the last four decades in the U.S. has shown that levels of support for government interventions to help blacks have been low and they are declining over time [104].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [104] Marsden, P.B. (2012). The Real Record on Racial Attitudes. Social Trends in American Life: Findings from the General Social Survey Since 1972, Princeton University Press. source

In the paper

“These dominant frames include that American society has made important progress on race in recent decades because changes in laws and policies have eliminated the discrimination and racism that had characterized American society in the past.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Davey, L. (2009). Talking About Disparities: The Effect of Frame Choices on Support for Race-Based Policies, FrameWorks Institute.

In the paper

“It found that seeing someone from one’s own racial group who is sad elicited the same brain activity as feeling sad oneself. In contrast, viewing someone of another race (outgroup), triggered no corresponding brain activity.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [111] Gutsell, 2012, Intergroup differences in the sharing of emotive states: Neural evidence of an empathy gap, Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. source

In the paper

“The existing research on the effective strategies for raising awareness of racial inequities in health by using the mass media is limited and significant gaps exist in our current understanding [100].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [100] Niederdeppe, 2013, Communication about health disparities in the mass media, J. Commun. source

In the paper

“There is a residual racism but it is only at the individual level and it is as common in minorities as in whites.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Davey, L. (2009). Talking About Disparities: The Effect of Frame Choices on Support for Race-Based Policies, FrameWorks Institute.

In the paper

“Framings identified as likely to be successful in building support to address disparities included those that de-emphasized racial inequities but concentrated on widely shared American values (like ingenuity and enhancing opportunity for all) and that linked communities in a sense of shared fate.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Davey, L. (2009). Talking About Disparities: The Effect of Frame Choices on Support for Race-Based Policies, FrameWorks Institute.

In the paper

“Accordingly, discrimination plays no role in racial inequities, and any differences in societal outcomes between whites and non-whites are due to blacks’ failure to live by core American values such as those linked to personal responsibility, self-reliance, and effort.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Davey, L. (2009). Talking About Disparities: The Effect of Frame Choices on Support for Race-Based Policies, FrameWorks Institute.

In the paper

“These ineffective approaches included framing diversity as a strength, arguing that disparities for minorities were canaries in a coal mine (early warning indicators), or framing racial inequities as reflecting white privilege or as structurally driven [105].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Davey, L. (2009). Talking About Disparities: The Effect of Frame Choices on Support for Race-Based Policies, FrameWorks Institute.

In the paper

“In the mid- 1960s, 2.9% of all practicing physicians in the U.S. were black, and in 2012, 3.8% of all practicing physicians were black (5.2% were Hispanic) [98].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [98] Deville, 2015, Diversity in Graduate Medical Education in the United States by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex, 2012, JAMA Intern. Med. source

In the paper

“Thus, people are less likely to ‘catch and match’ the emotion of outgroup members and therefore less likely to be motivated to act to meet their needs.”

In the paper

“Specific frames identified included emphasizing opportunity for all, highlighting effective solutions and innovation, making salient the interdependence of all communities, stressing preventing community problems before they occurred, and emphasizing fairness (not between individuals but) between places have the potential to be successful.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Davey, L. (2009). Talking About Disparities: The Effect of Frame Choices on Support for Race-Based Policies, FrameWorks Institute.

In the paper

“Based on testing of a variety of framings that could be used to talk about disparities, the researchers concluded that many widely used framing strategies do not work because the dominant racial framing blocks this alternative viewpoint.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Davey, L. (2009). Talking About Disparities: The Effect of Frame Choices on Support for Race-Based Policies, FrameWorks Institute.

In the paper

“Follow-up analyses revealed that there was an inverse association between racial pride and substance abuse, violence, recidivism, and a positive association with education and employment after being released from jail [124].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [124] Upadhyayula, 2017, The Association of Ethnic Pride With Health and Social Outcomes Among Young Black and Latino Men After Release From Jail, Youth Soc. source

In the paper

“Importantly, these changes were present for Democratic and Republican voters and conversations were effective with both transgender and non-transgender canvassers.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [133] Broockman, 2016, Durably reducing transphobia: A field experiment on door-to-door canvassing, Science source

In the paper

“Also, denial of racism more strongly predicted voting behavior in 2016 than in 2012 and it predicted some voters who voted for Obama in 2012 becoming Trump supporters in 2016.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [129] Schaffner, 2018, Understanding white polarization in the 2016 vote for president: The sobering role of racism and sexism, Political Sci. Q. source

In the paper

“Relatedly, research indicates that emotions have a large impact on decision-making in general, and on race-related attitudes and policy, in particular.”

In the paper

“These include when individuals are instructed to focus on an individual’s suffering (individuation) instead of his/her racial background, when individuals are on the same team with members of a racial outgroup, and among persons who have experienced greater inter-racial interaction in their socialization.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [110] Han, 2018, Neurocognitive Basis of Racial Ingroup Bias in Empathy, Trends Cogn. Sci. source

In the paper

“Research finds, for example, that mental disorders are more disabling that many common chronic conditions such as diabetes, arthritis, cardiovascular disease and cancer [120].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [120] Alonso, 2011, Days out of role due to common physical and mental conditions: Results from the WHO World Mental Health surveys, Mol. Psychiatry source

In the paper

“An experimental study also found that simply exposing white Trump supporters to a picture of a black (vs. a white man) in the context of seeking their support for a housing assistance policy, led them to be less supportive of housing assistance programs, angrier that some people receive assistance from government, and more likely to blame people who receive assistance for their circumstances [132]”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [132] Luttig, 2017, Supporters and opponents of Donald Trump respond differently to racial cues: An experimental analysis, Res. Politics source

In the paper

“in the Great Smoky Mountains Study, the provision of additional income was associated with increased adolescent obesity among low-income families, but there was no effect among high-income families [30].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [30] Akee, 2010, Parents’ Incomes and Children’s Outcomes: A Quasi-experiment Using Transfer Payments from Casino Profits, Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ. source

In the paper

“The study found that one year after release, those who had received the comprehensive intervention had spent fewer days in jail, were more likely to have attended school and found work, and had reduced odds of substance abuse [123].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [123] Freudenberg, 2010, Reducing drug use, human immunodeficiency virus risk, and recidivism among young men leaving jail: Evaluation of the REAL MEN re-entry program, J. Adolesc. Health source

In the paper

“The study found that this intervention led to substantial reductions in prejudice against transgender people and increases in support for a law that would protect transgender individuals from discrimination.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [133] Broockman, 2016, Durably reducing transphobia: A field experiment on door-to-door canvassing, Science source

In the paper

“The study found that the emotional essay increased feelings of anger about the problems faced by Japanese-Brazilians and sadness about their distress.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [135] Numata, 2013, Effects of a letter-writing task on empathy toward Japanese-Brazilians as out-group members: An educational method for intercultural understanding in universities and colleges, Psychologia source

In the paper

“An evaluation revealed that these parents had low levels of financial literacy, a history of negative experiences with financial institutions and more severe household financial constraints than was recognized by the designers of the intervention [119].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [119] Shanks, 2014, Assets and African Americans: Attempting to Capitalize on Hopes for Children Through College Savings Accounts, Rev. Black Political Econ. source

In the paper

“Among whites, Trump had a four point margin of voter support over Hilary Clinton among college graduates, but a nearly 40% margin among those without a college education.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [129] Schaffner, 2018, Understanding white polarization in the 2016 vote for president: The sobering role of racism and sexism, Political Sci. Q. source

In the paper

“The evidence reviewed here indicates that while reducing racial inequities in health is neither simple nor straightforward, there is a sizable body of scientific research, much larger than most researchers and practitioners recognize, that has identified key priorities for comprehensive efforts to reduce and ultimately eliminate disparities in health.”