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Cited by 1,441Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and LipoproteinsAdipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic DiseasesDiet, Metabolism, and Disease

Metabolic Syndrome: Updates on Pathophysiology and Management in 2021

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Fahed, Gracia, Aoun, Laurence, Bou Zerdan, Morgan, Allam, Sabine, Bou Zerdan, Maroun, Bouferraa, Youssef, Assi, Hazem I.·2022·International Journal of Molecular Sciences
DOI 10.3390/ijms23020786PMC PMC8775991
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Abstract

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) forms a cluster of metabolic dysregulations including insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, central obesity, and hypertension. The pathogenesis of MetS encompasses multiple genetic and acquired entities that fall under the umbrella of insulin resistance and chronic low-grade inflammation. If left untreated, MetS is significantly associated with an increased risk of developing diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Given that CVDs constitute by far the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, it has become essential to investigate the role played by MetS in this context to reduce the heavy burden of the disease. As such, and while MetS relatively constitutes a novel clinical entity, the extent of research about the disease has been exponentially growing in the past few decades. However, many aspects of this clinical entity are still not completely understood, and many questions remain unanswered to date. In this review, we provide a historical background and highlight the epidemiology of MetS. We also discuss the current and latest knowledge about the histopathology and pathophysiology of the disease. Finally, we summarize the most recent updates about the management and the prevention of this clinical syndrome.

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  • Central obesity measures-particularly BRI-are indispensable for accurate risk classification.

    “illustrating the indispensable value of central obesity measures—particularly BRI—in accurate risk classification [35–37].”

    From Machine learning with the body roundness index and associated indicators: a new approach to predicting metabolic syndrome (2025) · cites this paper as [35]

    The Introduction (§1.1, page unavailable) identifies central obesity as a metabolic-syndrome risk factor and says waist circumference and waist-to-height ratio help assess risk. It does not identify BRI as particularly valuable, and it cautions that waist circumference alone is inconclusive, so the claim of indispensable value for accurate classification overstates this source. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Authors
Fahed, G., Aoun, L., Bou Zerdan, M., Allam, S., Bou Zerdan, M., Bouferraa, Y., & Assi, H. I.
Affiliations
  • American University of Beirut (LB)
  • Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (LB)
  • Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut 2020, Lebanon
  • University of Balamand (LB)
  • Department of Internal Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, New York, NY 13205, USA
  • Cleveland Clinic (US)
  • American University of Beirut Medical Center (LB)
Corresponding author
Assi, Hazem I.
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Molecular Sciences
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2022-01-12
Volume
23
Issue
2
Pages
786
ISSN
1422-0067 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/ijms23020786
PMC
PMC8775991
OpenAlex
W4206841239
Cited by
1,441
References
33
Citations by year
2026: 231 · 2025: 419 · 2024: 399 · 2023: 301 · 2022: 90
FWCI
43.10
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Molecular Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diet, Metabolism, and Disease
Keywords
metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, abdominal obesity, hypertension, low-grade inflammation, pathophysiology, histopathology, cardiovascular risk, diabetes risk, prevention, management
MeSH terms
Chronic Disease, Disease Susceptibility, Humans, Inflammation, Insulin Resistance, Mitochondria, Organ Specificity, Biomarkers, Prevalence, Disease Management, Metabolic Syndrome, Public Health Surveillance

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