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A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis
Open accessAbstract
Over the last few decades, studies on the oral microbiome have increased awareness that the balance between the host and the microbial species that coexist in it is essential for oral health at all stages of life. However, this balance is extremely difficult to maintain, and many factors can disrupt it: general eating habits, sugar consumption, tobacco smoking, oral hygiene, and use of antibiotics and other antimicrobials. It is now known that alterations in the oral microbiota are responsible for developing and promoting many oral diseases, including periodontal disease. In this context, diet is an area for further investigation as it has been observed that the intake of particular foods, such as farmed animal meat, dairy products, refined vegetable oils, and processed cereals, affects the composition of the microbiota, leading to an increased representation of acid-producing and acid-tolerant organisms and periodontal pathogens. However, little is known about the influence of diet on the oral microbiome and the creation of a suitable microenvironment for the development of periodontal disease. The aim of the present study is to evaluate current knowledge on the role of diet in the oral dysbiosis underlying periodontal disease.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This narrative review synthesizes evidence that diet shapes the oral microbiome and periodontal inflammation, with Westernized/high-refined-carbohydrate, saturated-fat, and animal-protein patterns promoting dysbiosis and periodontitis, while fruits, vegetables, complex carbohydrates, certain vitamins, and probiotics/prebiotics may support periodontal health. Evidence remains limited by few interventional and mechanistic studies, especially on micronutrient–oral microbiome interactions.
Key findings
- Diet is proposed to drive oral dysbiosis: Westernized patterns rich in farmed animal meat, sugary dairy, refined vegetable oils, and processed grains increase acid-producing/acid-tolerant organisms and periodontal pathogens; archaeological dental calculus shows agricultural/Neolithic onward plaque dominated by caries-associated Veillonellaceae and periodontal taxa *P. gingivalis*, *T. forsythia*, and *T. denticola*.
- Macronutrient effects include refined/high-glycemic carbohydrates promoting saccharolytic microbes and acidification, protein-rich neutral-alkaline environments favoring periodontal pathogens, and saturated fatty acids positively associated with periodontal lesions in 264 Japanese participants; a vegetarian group (100) had significantly less pocket depth, less bleeding on probing, and better oral hygiene than 100 nonvegetarians.
- Micronutrient findings include low vitamin C, B12, and D linked to periodontitis; beta-carotene intake ≥7.07 mg/d associated with a lower percentage of sites with probing depth >3 mm after nonsurgical periodontal treatment in nonsmokers; higher vitamin E intake inversely associated with periodontal disease progression over 2 years in 264 patients; and vitamin K supplementation unable to reduce pro-inflammatory factors in periodontal tissue.
- Probiotic/prebiotic evidence is mixed: *L. rhamnosus* SP1 (2 × 10⁷ CFU daily for 3 months) in 28 patients gave improvements similar to scaling and root planing alone; heat-killed *L. plantarum* L-137 (10 mg daily for 12 weeks) reduced probing depth; a Bacillus probiotic in 40 gingivitis patients reduced plaque and gingivitis after 8 weeks but not significantly versus placebo; no direct evidence exists for micronutrient–oral microbiome interactions.
Methods
- Narrative review aiming to evaluate current knowledge on the role of diet in oral dysbiosis underlying periodontal disease.
- Evidence is drawn from cited literature including historical/archaeological dental calculus studies, cross-sectional and cohort studies, clinical trials, and animal/in vitro studies; no systematic search strategy, databases, inclusion/exclusion criteria, or risk-of-bias assessment is reported.
- Main analysis is a qualitative/narrative synthesis organized by oral microbiome, food texture and diet, macronutrients, micronutrients, and probiotics/prebiotics.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: little is known about the influence of diet on the oral microbiome and creation of a suitable microenvironment for periodontal disease; few studies exist on vitamin A in periodontal therapy; further randomized controlled interventional studies are needed for vitamin D; interventional studies on prebiotics in periodontal disease are lacking; and there is no direct evidence of interactions between micronutrient intake and the oral microbiome.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it lacks a systematic protocol or quantitative synthesis, so conclusions rely on heterogeneous observational, animal, and in vitro evidence and cannot establish causality or precise effect sizes.
- Evident from the text: several cited associations come from small or selected samples (e.g., 28 patients in a probiotic trial, 40 gingivitis patients, 100 vegetarians vs 100 nonvegetarians), and some findings conflict (e.g., no diet-related differences in oral bacterial communities in some studies versus small salivary metabolomic differences in others).
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In the paper
“It is now known that alterations in the oral microbiota are responsible for developing and promoting many oral diseases, including periodontal disease.”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · hedged
“The induction and progression of the disease are promoted by a dysbiosis of the oral commensal microbiota, which may affect the host’s immune defenses, causing an inflammatory response that ultimately leads to irredeemable destruction of the periodontium (i.e., alveolar bone and periodontal ligament) in a susceptible host [7,8,9].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Avila, 2009, The oral microbiota: Living with a permanent guest, DNA Cell Biol. source
- Not checked yetcites [8] Aas, 2005, Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity, J. Clin. Microbiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Jakubovics, N.S., and Palmer, R.J. (2013). Detection and culture of novel oral Bacteria. Oral Microbial Ecology—Current Research and New Perspectives, Caister Academic Press.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · hedged
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“it has been observed that the intake of particular foods, such as farmed animal meat, dairy products, refined vegetable oils, and processed cereals, affects the composition of the microbiota, leading to an increased representation of acid-producing and acid-tolerant organisms and periodontal pathogens.”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
“The influence of diet on the oral microbiome has become more evident over the last decades while observing a shift toward a “Westernized” dietary pattern characterized by staple foods, such as farmed animal meats, high-sugary dairy products, refined vegetable oils, and processed grains that were accompanied by pathological changes in the oral microbiota, including increased representation of acid-”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Baker, 2019, Exploiting the oral microbiome to prevent tooth decay: Has evolution already provided the best tools?, Front. Microbiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [20] Alhassani, A.A., Hu, F.B., Rimm, E.B., Li, Y., Rosner, B.A., Willett, W.C., and Joshipura, K.J. (2020). Dietary flavonoid intake and risk of periodontitis. J. Periodontol., Online ahead of print. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
In the paper
“Evidence indicates that macronutrients and micronutrients can modulate pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cascades, influencing a person’s baseline inflammatory status [19].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Grosso, G., Laudisio, D., Frias-Toral, E., Barrea, L., Muscogiuri, G., Savastano, S., and Colao, A. (2022). Anti-inflammatory nutrients and obesity-associated metabolic-inflammation: State of the art and future direction. Nutrients, 14. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Several nutrients have an important impact on periodontal health [18].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Rosan, 2000, Dental plaque formation, Microbes Infect. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The rationale for this hypothesis relies on historical observation of two key periods in human history: the Neolithic and Industrial revolutions. These periods represented two critical junctures in our history with repercussions beyond economic, cultural, and social matters. Indeed, the foods and processing techniques that arose in these two historical periods significantly altered the central”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Periodontal disease severity is related to both modifiable (smoking, diet) and non-modifiable host risk factors (genetic susceptibility) as well as environmental factors [10,11,12].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Krom, 2014, Candida and other fungal species: Forgotten players of healthy oral microbiota, J. Dent. Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [11] Ghannoum, M.A., Jurevic, R.J., Mukherjee, P.K., Cui, F., Sikaroodi, M., Naqvi, A., and Gillevet, P.M. (2010). Characterization of the oral fungal microbiome (mycobiome) in healthy individuals. PLoS Pathog., 6. source
- Not checked yetcites [12] Dridi, 2011, Archaea as emerging organisms in complex human microbiomes, Anaerobe source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The pre-agricultural diet consisted mainly of unprocessed wild fruits and vegetables, tubers, nuts and wild animals [52].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] Cordain, 2000, Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The persistence of periodontal inflammation can result in residual pockets and the persistent of periodontal bacteria, leading to new tissue destruction [16,17].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The transition from hunter-gatherer to agrarian lifestyles introduced cereals, pulses, dairy products and meat into the human diet [53].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Zhang, 2021, Extending the vitamin D pathway to vitamin D3 and CYP27A1 in periodontal ligament cells. 2021;9:44-53, J. Periodontol.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“This change was associated with the appearance of dental and periodontal diseases as a result of changes in the oral microbiota [54].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [54] Aufderheide, A.C., Rodriguez-Martin, C., and Langsjoen, O. (1998). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology, Cambridge University Press.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 11
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The induction and progression of the disease are promoted by a dysbiosis of the oral commensal microbiota, which may affect the host’s immune defenses, causing an inflammatory response that ultimately leads to irredeemable destruction of the periodontium (i.e., alveolar bone and periodontal ligament) in a susceptible host [7,8,9].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Avila, 2009, The oral microbiota: Living with a permanent guest, DNA Cell Biol. source
- Not checked yetcites [8] Aas, 2005, Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity, J. Clin. Microbiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Jakubovics, N.S., and Palmer, R.J. (2013). Detection and culture of novel oral Bacteria. Oral Microbial Ecology—Current Research and New Perspectives, Caister Academic Press.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Periodontitis is a disease with a multifactorial etiology that, following infection induced by bacteria of the periodontal biofilm, can determine tooth loss following host response [5].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Isola, 2022, Periodontitis activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in serum and saliva, J. Periodontol. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The actual influence of diet on oral microbiota has been long debated [49].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Loesche, W., and Gibbons, R. (1966). Influence of nutrition on the ecology and cariogenicity of the oral microflora. The Science of Nutrition and its Application in Clinical Dentistry, Saunders.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The influence of diet on the oral microbiome has become more evident over the last decades while observing a shift toward a “Westernized” dietary pattern characterized by staple foods, such as farmed animal meats, high-sugary dairy products, refined vegetable oils, and processed grains that were accompanied by pathological changes in the oral microbiota, including increased representation of acid-”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Baker, 2019, Exploiting the oral microbiome to prevent tooth decay: Has evolution already provided the best tools?, Front. Microbiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [20] Alhassani, A.A., Hu, F.B., Rimm, E.B., Li, Y., Rosner, B.A., Willett, W.C., and Joshipura, K.J. (2020). Dietary flavonoid intake and risk of periodontitis. J. Periodontol., Online ahead of print. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Diet provides nutritional sources for the oral microbiota and exerts a selective pressure, favoring the survival and replication of organisms best adapted to utilize specific food resources derived from the host [8].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Aas, 2005, Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity, J. Clin. Microbiol. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Carbohydrates are an essential source of energy for the body and are involved in fat metabolism [65].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Schifferle, 2005, Nutrition and periodontal disease, Dent. Clin.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Several animal studies have shown the relationship between oral health and the texture of food eaten: wild animals have a higher oral health status because domestic animals eat refined foods that do not require intense chewing effort [59].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] Crittenden, A.N., Sorrentino, J., Moonie, S.A., Peterson, M., Mabulla, A., and Ungar, P.S. (2017). Oral health in transition: The Hadza foragers of Tanzania. PLoS ONE, 12. source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Streptococci, in particular, play a major role in obtaining sugar residues from glycoproteins [60].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] Schmitt, 2004, Patterns and universals of adult romantic attachment across 62 cultural regions: Are models of self and of other pancultural constructs?, J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Therefore, the transition from hunter-gatherer to agrarian lifestyles introduced dairy products, refined carbohydrates, vegetable oils, and alcohol into the human diet, which are staples of the modern diet [53].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Zhang, 2021, Extending the vitamin D pathway to vitamin D3 and CYP27A1 in periodontal ligament cells. 2021;9:44-53, J. Periodontol.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The introduction of these foods into the daily human routine has been linked with a decline in oral health and several other diseases, including (but not limited to) cardiovascular disease, inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatic diseases, many cancers, and obesity [55].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] 2004, Dietary fiber intake and dental health status in urban-marginal, and rural communities in central Mexico, J. Nutr. Health Aging
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent human studies have shown no difference in the growth rates of oral bacteria in the presence or absence of food, indicating no relationship between diet and the composition of oral bacterial communities [60,61].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] Schmitt, 2004, Patterns and universals of adult romantic attachment across 62 cultural regions: Are models of self and of other pancultural constructs?, J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Beckers, 1982, Growth rates of Actinomyces viscosus and Streptococcus mutans during early colonization of tooth surfaces in gnotobiotic rats, Infect. Immun. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Macronutrients are the main foods that need to be consumed in large quantities, as they are the most important source of energy for the human organism.”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [64] Najeeb, S., Zafar, M.S., Khurshid, Z., Zohaib, S., and Almas, K. (2016). The role of nutrition in periodontal health: An update. Nutrients, 8. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Men who lived in the bush did not maintain the similar oral health status of their female counterparts, presumably due to cultural influences, such as high honey ingestion and tobacco consumption, among others [55].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] 2004, Dietary fiber intake and dental health status in urban-marginal, and rural communities in central Mexico, J. Nutr. Health Aging
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In line with this hypothesis, a study of 161 subjects observed a large baseline microbiota in more than 98% of the subjects tested, with no differences in relation to diet type (omnivorous, ovo-lacto-vegetarian, or vegan) [62].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 4. Impact of Food Texture and Diet on the Oral Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62] De Filippis, F., Vannini, L., La Storia, A., Laghi, L., Piombino, P., Stellato, G., Serrazanetti, D.I., Gozzi, G., Turroni, S., and Ferrocino, I. (2014). The same microbiota and a potentially discriminant metabolome in the saliva of omnivore, ovo-lacto-vegetarian and vegan individuals. PLoS ONE, 9. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 161Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These bacteria can cause demineralization of dental enamel and development of carious lesions, and on the other hand, promote bacterial acidogenicity and acidification by increasing cell membrane permeability to protons, induction of H+- ATPase activity, and stimulation of metabolic pathways involved in acid neutralization and alkalinization [83].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [83] Takahashi, 2015, Oral microbiome metabolism: From “Who Are They?” to “What Are They Doing?”, J. Dent. Res. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It has been observed that Provetella intermedia, Prevotella nigrescens, and Porphyromonas increased their growth in the presence of glucose; at the same time, they significantly reduced the production of cytotoxic end products (succinate, isobutyrate, isovalerate, and ammonia) and proteolytic activities (immunoglobulin, albumin, and casein degradation activities).”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [84] Saito, 2001, Effects of glucose on formation of cytotoxic end-products and proteolytic activity of Prevotella intermedia, Prevotella nigrescens and Porphyromonas gingivalis, J. Periodontal Res. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These microbes have a favorable nutritional environment and are able to become the predominant micro-organisms in the oral microbiota, outcompeting slower-growing species with alternative nutritional requirements [81].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [81] Satokari, R. (2020). High intake of sugar and the balance between Pro- and anti-inflammatory gut bacteria. Nutrients, 12. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The intake of refined carbohydrates has increased more and more in recent years, promoting the growth of saccharolytic microbes.”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [81] Satokari, R. (2020). High intake of sugar and the balance between Pro- and anti-inflammatory gut bacteria. Nutrients, 12. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The saccharolytic bacteria include Streptococcus, Actinomyces, and Veillonella, which have the unique ability to degrade carbohydrates via the Embden−Meyerhof−Pernas pathway, producing acidic by-products including lactate, acetate, ethanol, and formate [1,82].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Moye, 2014, Fueling the caries process: Carbohydrate metabolism and gene regulation by Streptococcus mutans, J. Oral Microbiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [82] Klein, 2009, Structural and molecular basis of the role of starch and sucrose in Streptococcus mutans biofilm development, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The digestion of carbohydrates begins in the oral cavity through the enzyme salivary α-amylase, which catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch by breaking down the α- 1,4-glycosidic bonds to produce small saccharide units, such as maltose, maltotriose, and alpha-limit dextrins [79].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [79] Bornhorst, 2012, Bolus formation and disintegration during digestion of food carbohydrates, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A 2014 study indicated that refined sugar intake among adults in the United States has risen by more than 30% over the past three decennia [71].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [71] Ng, 2014, Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013, Lancet source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A seminary investigation has indicated that refined carbohydrates are a risk factor for both caries and periodontal disease. [78].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [78] Chapple, 2017, Interaction of lifestyle, behaviour or systemic diseases with dental caries and periodontal diseases: Consensus report of group 2 of the joint EFP/ORCA workshop on the boundaries between caries and periodontal diseases, J. Clin. Periodontol. source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In one study, it was seen that although glucose is an essential nutrient for the survival of oral bacteria, its exogenous supply can be discontinuous, and the depth of the periodontal pocket can influence its concentration within a periodontal pocket.”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.1. Carbohydrates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [84] Saito, 2001, Effects of glucose on formation of cytotoxic end-products and proteolytic activity of Prevotella intermedia, Prevotella nigrescens and Porphyromonas gingivalis, J. Periodontal Res. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Moreover, the authors pointed out that the vegetarian patients presented a higher level of education and healthier lifestyle than the non-vegetarians [89].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.2. Proteins
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89] Staufenbiel, 2013, Periodontal conditions in vegetarians: A clinical study, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Instead, vegetable protein has been linked to a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and kidney disease [88].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.2. Proteins
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [88] Richter, 2015, Plant protein and animal proteins: Do they differentially affect cardiovascular disease risk?, Adv. Nutr. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A cross-sectional clinical study by Staufenbiel et al. evaluated the periodontal status of 100 vegetarian subjects compared with that of 100 nonvegetarian individuals. The findings indicated that the vegetarian group had significantly less pocket depth, less bleeding on probing, and better oral hygiene when compared with the nonvegetarian group.”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.2. Proteins
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89] Staufenbiel, 2013, Periodontal conditions in vegetarians: A clinical study, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Trans fatty acids are the result of overheating fats and are therefore typical of particular forms of cooking foods, such as frying, baking, or roasting [91].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 5. Impact of Macronutrients during Periodontitis > 5.3. Lipids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [91] 2009, Trans fatty acids (tFA): Sources and intake levels, biological effects and content in commercial Spanish food, Nutr. Hosp.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“N-acetyl-D-mannosamine, succinic acid, and the di-peptide Met-Pro are promising oral prebiotic compounds, which have beneficial effects on maintaining and improving oral health.”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 7. Strategies against Dysbiotic Microbiota
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The efficacy of N-acetyl-D-mannosamine in a nutrient-rich environment recreated similar to that of the oral cavity is not reduced.
In the paper
“Several studies investigate the role of probiotics on periodontal health, while there is a lack of interventional studies on the effects of prebiotics on periodontal disease [151].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 7. Strategies against Dysbiotic Microbiota
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [151] Slomka, 2018, Oral prebiotics and the influence of environmental conditions in vitro, J. Periodontol. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is well established that some bacteria in the gut microbiota, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria, can produce vitamins, including vitamin B12.”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 6. Impact of Micronutrients during Periodontitis > 6.6. Vitamin K
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [123] LeBlanc, 2013, Bacteria as vitamin suppliers to their host: A gut microbiota perspective, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A recent in vitro study showed that treatment of multi-species biofilms with N-acetyl-D-mannosamine, succinic acid, and the di-peptide Met-Pro resulted in a significant increase in the proportion of beneficial species in the oral microbiota and a concomitant reduction in the proportion of pathogenic species.”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 7. Strategies against Dysbiotic Microbiota
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [152] Feghali, 2012, Cranberry proanthocyanidins: Natural weapons against periodontal diseases, J. Agric. Food Chem. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Plaque and gingivitis indices were significantly reduced after 8 weeks of treatment but showed no statistically significant differences between the placebo and probiotic groups [141].”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 7. Strategies against Dysbiotic Microbiota
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [141] Slomka, 2017, Nutritional stimulation of commensal oral bacteria suppresses pathogens: The prebiotic concept, J. Clin. Periodontol. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among foods, with the greatest impact on periodontal disease, we find proteins and simple carbohydrates, which on the one hand favor the establishment of a microenvironment with an acid pH and, on the other, favor inflammation.”
§ A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis > 8. Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Little is known about the influence of diet on the oral microbiome and the creation of a suitable microenvironment for the development of periodontal disease.
“However, little is known about the influence of diet on the oral microbiome and the creation of a suitable microenvironment for the development of periodontal disease.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The balance between the host and the microbial species that coexist in the oral microbiome is essential for oral health at all stages of life.
“studies on the oral microbiome have increased awareness that the balance between the host and the microbial species that coexist in it is essential for oral health at all stages of life.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Little evidence of dental and periodontal disease exists for pre-neolithic hunter-gatherer societies.
“Little evidence of dental and periodontal disease exists for pre-neolithic hunter-gatherer societies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is no direct evidence in the literature of interactions between micronutrient intake and the oral microbiome.
“Currently, there is no direct evidence in the literature of interactions between micronutrient intake and the oral microbiome.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The positive periodontal effects of a vegetarian diet are not due to the higher education and healthier lifestyle of vegetarians.
“Therefore, the vegetarian diet appears to affect periodontal health positively.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The efficacy of N-acetyl-D-mannosamine in a nutrient-rich environment recreated similar to that of the oral cavity is not reduced.
“It is important to specify that the efficacy of N-acetyl-D-mannosamine in a nutrient-rich environment, recreated similar to that of the oral cavity, is not reduced.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Microbiome-mediated links between diet and health have been prevalently investigated by considering the role of the abiotic components of foods. 35-41”
From Unexplored microbial diversity from 2,500 food metagenomes and links with the human microbiome. (2024) · cites this paper as [40]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Dodington finding cites a paper by Aas
MinorThe finding is attributed to Dodington et al. but cites reference 8, whose listed authors begin with Aas and whose title concerns normal oral flora. A Dodington paper is instead listed as reference 125.
“High dietary intake of beta-carotene (≥7.07 mg/d) was associated by Dodington et al. with a significantly lower percentage of sites with probing depth >3 mm after nonsurgical periodontal treatment. These effects on periodontal parameters were found to be greater in adult nonsmokers than in adult smokers with chronic periodontitis [8].”
“8. Aas J.A. Paster B.J. Stokes L.N. Olsen I. Dewhirst F.E. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005 43 5721 5732”
Slomka prebiotic study cites different authors
MinorThe named Slomka et al. study is cited as reference 76, but reference 76 is by Jenzsch et al. A Slomka prebiotic study appears elsewhere in the reference list as reference 141.
“In a recent study, Slomka et al. identified two prebiotics, beta-methyl-d-galactoside and N-acetyl-d-mannosamine, which could be used in the promotion of bacteria associated with oral health [76].”
“76. Jenzsch A. Eick S. Rassoul F. Purschwitz R. Jentsch H. Nutritional intervention in patients with periodontal disease: Clinical, immunological and microbiological variables during 12 months”
Vitamin D case-control claim cites a vitamin C paper
MinorThe text attributes a vitamin D case-control finding to Laky et al. at reference 115, but reference 115 lists Lindblad et al. and concerns vitamin C homeostasis.
“Laky et al., through a case-control study, observed that patients with periodontal disease were common with higher vitamin D deficiency (<50 nmol/L) than healthy subjects [115].”
“115. Lindblad M. Tveden-Nyborg P. Lykkesfeldt J. Regulation of vitamin C homeostasis during deficiency Nutrients 2013 5 2860 2879”
Claim about human studies cites a rat study
MinorThe sentence describes its cited evidence as human studies, but reference 61 explicitly describes research in gnotobiotic rats.
“Recent human studies have shown no difference in the growth rates of oral bacteria in the presence or absence of food, indicating no relationship between diet and the composition of oral bacterial communities [60,61].”
“61. Beckers H. Van der Hoeven J. Growth rates of Actinomyces viscosus and Streptococcus mutans during early colonization of tooth surfaces in gnotobiotic rats”
Refined carbohydrates assigned to two historical transitions
MinorThe paper places the refining of carbohydrates with mechanical milling during the Industrial Revolution, but then says the earlier transition to agriculture introduced refined carbohydrates.
“Changes in the pre-neolithic oral microbiota were further exacerbated by the evolution of food manufacturing techniques as a result of industrial revolution about 200 years ago [57]. The invention of mechanical mills allowed for the refining of carbohydrates”
“Therefore, the transition from hunter-gatherer to agrarian lifestyles introduced dairy products, refined carbohydrates, vegetable oils, and alcohol into the human diet, which are staples of the modern diet [53].”
Conclusion reverses the stated pH effect of protein fermentation
MinorThe conclusion says proteins favor an acidic microenvironment. Earlier, the paper says amino-acid fermentation neutralizes acidic environments.
“Among foods, with the greatest impact on periodontal disease, we find proteins and simple carbohydrates, which on the one hand favor the establishment of a microenvironment with an acid pH and, on the other, favor inflammation.”
“Fermentation of amino acids neutralizes acidic environments, creating a more favorable atmosphere for the growth of other periodontitis’ pathogens [83].”
Citations
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Research works printed but not linked: 3
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Oral microbiome: a review of its impact on oral and systemic health
Rajasekaran, J. J., Krishnamurthy, H. K., Bosco, J., Jayaraman, V., Krishna, K., Wang, T., & Bei, K. (2024) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms12091797 · Cited by 272
“This process involves specialized bacteria that degrade glycoproteins and sugars, a crucial step in nutrient utilization [42].”
BackgroundOral microbiota in human health and disease: A perspective
Santacroce, L., Passarelli, P. C., Azzolino, D., Bottalico, L., Charitos, I. A., Cazzolla, A. P., Colella, M., Topi, S., Godoy, F. G., & D’Addona, A. (2023) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1177/15353702231187645 · Cited by 178
“51,127 Prebiotics can be envisioned as nutrients for those probiotic bacteria.”
BackgroundUnexplored microbial diversity from 2,500 food metagenomes and links with the human microbiome.
Carlino, N., Blanco-Míguez, A., Punčochář, M., Mengoni, C., Pinto, F., Tatti, A., Manghi, P., Armanini, F., Avagliano, M., Barcenilla, C., et al. (2024) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2024.07.039 · Cited by 146
The Complicated Relationship of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Oral Microbiome: A Narrative Review
Leonov, G. E., Varaeva, Y. R., Николаевна, Л. Е., & Starodubova, A. V. (2023) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines11102749 · Cited by 78
The Oral–Gut Microbiome–Brain Axis in Cognition
Adil, N. A., Omo-erigbe, C., Yadav, H., & Jain, S. (2025) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms13040814 · Cited by 65
“…rich in fibers, vitamins, and minerals that promote the growth of beneficial bacteria in the oral microbiome, including oral Streptococci, such as Streptococcus sanguinis , Streptococcus gordonii , and Streptococcus salivarius , which are some of the first colonizers within the oral cavity [154].”
Functional foods for oral and dental health
Abedinia, A., Zambelli, R. A., & Hosseini, E. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-28862-3.00017-0 · Cited by 57
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“Periodontal inflammation can be further reduced by nonsurgical therapy, vitamins, prebiotics, probiotics, and symbiotic agents [70,92].”
BackgroundPeriodontal bacteria influence systemic diseases through the gut microbiota
Xi, M., Ruan, Q., Zhong, S., Li, J., Qi, W., Xie, C., Wang, X., Abuduxiku, N., & Ni, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2024.1478362 · Cited by 49
Nagakubo, D., & Kaibori, Y. (2023) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms11092307 · Cited by 70
“Changes in the oral microbiota can result not only in deterioration of oral health, such as dental caries, periodontal disease [64,65], and inflammation of the oral mucosa, but also in association with various systemic diseases, as reported in recent years.”
BackgroundPersonalizing Nutrition Strategies: Bridging Research and Public Health
Clemente‐Suárez, V. J., Peris-Ramos, H. C., Redondo-Flórez, L., Beltrán-Velasco, A. I., Martín-Rodríguez, A., David-Fernandez, S., Sepulveda, R. A. Y., & Tornero-Aguilera, J. F. (2024) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm14030305 · Cited by 38
“They are diseases that are not caused by the introduction of external pathogens to the oral environment, but by the disruption of homeostasis and the consequent dysbiosis that leads to changes in supragingival and subgingival communities associated with health states [313].”
BackgroundThe Oral–Gut Microbiota Axis Across the Lifespan: New Insights on a Forgotten Interaction
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“Lastly, microbiota composition can be heavily affected by geographical, environmental and lifestyle factors 42,43 .”
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“Recent studies have shown that the oral microbiota can be influenced by various factors such as diet [6,7] and smoking, which can lead to the growth of one type of bacterial species rather than others.”
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Periodontitis Continuum: Antecedents, Triggers, Mediators, and Treatment Strategies
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“The addition of probiotics in different products is one of the strategies of pharmaceutical and food industries to improve consumer health, and extensive in vivo studies focus on LAB to treat various oral conditions [3].”
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The Oral–Gut Microbiota Axis as a Mediator of Frailty and Sarcopenia
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“Chronic, low-grade inflammation, is a critical mediator linking oral pathogens to systemic diseases [148] and it is a well-known contributing factor in the etiopathogenesis of malnutrition, frailty and sarcopenia [6,31,32,149].”
InfluentialSpatial ecology of the Neisseriaceae family in the human oral cavity
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Oral microbiome composition is associated with depressive symptoms during pregnancy
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“There is an established link between dietary factors such as meat, O. Agranyoni et al. dairy, and sugar consumption, and their impact on the oral microbiome dynamics (Santonocito et al., 2022).”
Effects of Mint Oils on the Human Oral Microbiome: A Pilot Study
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“On the other hand, a fiber-and probiotic-rich diet can encourage the growth of beneficial bacteria that enhance oral health [6].”
BackgroundOral microbiome brain axis and cognitive performance in older adults
Adnan, D., Engen, P. A., Villanueva, M., Raeisi, S., Ramirez, V., Naqib, A. D., Green, S. J., Bishehsari, F., Barnes, L. L., Keshavarzian, A., et al. (2025) · npj Dementia · doi:10.1038/s44400-025-00004-4 · Cited by 18
“3, 4).”
The forgotten link: how the oral microbiome shapes childhood growth and development
Tjandrawinata, R. R., Amalia, N., Tandi, Y. Y. P., Athallah, A. F., Wibowo, C. A., Aditya, M. R., Muhammad, A., Azizah, M. R., Humardani, F. M., Nojaid, A., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Oral Health · doi:10.3389/froh.2025.1547099 · Cited by 15
Oral microbiome and its relationship with oral cancer
Wang, S., Tan, X., Cheng, J., Liu, Z., Zhou, H., Liao, J., Wang, X., & Liu, H. (2024) · Journal of Cancer Research and Therapeutics · doi:10.4103/jcrt.jcrt_44_24 · Cited by 18
The oral microbial odyssey influencing chronic metabolic disease
Gupta, U., & Dey, P. (2023) · Archives of Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1080/13813455.2023.2296346 · Cited by 14
“…et al. 2016). in general, the oral microbiota performs various crucial functions, including the breakdown of food particles into smaller molecules that the body can absorb (Santonocito et al. 2022). certain microbes also synthesise vitamins (e.g. riboflavin, vitamin K) (Kato et al. 2017).”
Unraveling the Extra Virgin Olive Oil Effect on Inflammation and on Gut and Saliva Microbiota
Correia, M., Gomes, A. T. P. C., Moreira, I., Maghariki, J. E., Mendes, K., Correia, M. J., Barros, R., Barbosa, J. C., Rosa, N. D. N., & Gomes, A. (2025) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom15030338 · Cited by 14
“Several nutrients are implicated in modulating pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cascades, influencing baseline inflammatory status [29].”
Almiñana-Pastor, P. J., Alpiste‐Illueca, F., Mico-Martinez, P., García‐Giménez, J. L., García-López, E., & Roldán, A. L. (2023) · Non-Coding RNA · doi:10.3390/ncrna9060073 · Cited by 13
“They can help create a microenvironment conducive to the multiplication and survival of certain periodontal pathogens bacteria, and they can inhibit the growth of other microorganisms [5,6].”
BackgroundCausal Association Between Microbiome and Oral-Oropharyngeal Cancer: A Mendelian Randomization Study
Li, Z., Huang, X., Wang, Q., & Gopinath, D. (2025) · International Dental Journal · doi:10.1016/j.identj.2025.01.017 · Cited by 12
“52 Furthermore, the consumption of pharmaceuticals and antibiotics can influence the oral microbial flora.”
The Impact of Diet and Nutrition on the Oral Microbiome
Santonocito, S., Polizzi, A., & Isola, G. (2025) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-79146-8_4 · Cited by 14
Self-citationAhmed, I., Nijs, J., Vanroose, M., Vandeputte, D., Kindt, S., Elma, Ö., Hendrix, J., Huysmans, E., & Lahousse, A. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27010114 · Cited by 12
Oral Wound Healing in Aging Population
Bogdan-Andreescu, C. F., Banateanu, A. M., Botoaca, O., Defta, C. L., Poalelungi, C.-V., Brăila, A. D., Damian, C. M., Brăila, M. G., & Dȋră, L. M. (2024) · Surgeries · doi:10.3390/surgeries5040077 · Cited by 15
“As individuals age, their oral microbiome undergoes significant changes, often driven by systemic diseases [75], nutritional status [76,77], and the aging process [78].”
Nepali oral microbiomes reflect a gradient of lifestyles from traditional to industrialized
Ryu, E. P., Gautam, Y., Proctor, D. M., Bhandari, D., Tandukar, S., Gupta, M., Gautam, G. P., Relman, D. A., Shibl, A. A., Sherchand, J. B., et al. (2024) · Microbiome · doi:10.1186/s40168-024-01941-7 · Cited by 12
“Multiple specific lifestyle factors are believed to play a role in shaping the oral microbiome, such as smoking, dietary fiber, and carbohydrate sources [47, 48, 81].”
The oral microbiome in aging: a window into health and longevity
Yue, Z., Li, C., Yan, F., Guan, S., Fan, Y., & Chen, X. (2025) · Journal of Oral Microbiology · doi:10.1080/20002297.2025.2589648 · Cited by 13
“Factors such as age, race, geographical location, dietary habits [14,15], physical activity, and oral conditions [16] (e.g. number of teeth and presence of oral diseases) can influence the composition and abundance of the oral microbiome.”
From Diet to Oral and Periodontal Health: Exploring the Crucial Role of Nutrition—A Narrative Review
Curca, F. R., Luchian, I. A., Bida, F. C., Virvescu, D. I., Rotundu, G., Butnaru, O., Balan, G. G., Surlari, Z., Georgescu, A., Păsărin, L., et al. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18010168 · Cited by 13
“High-sugar and high-refined-carbohydrate diets promote the selection of acidogenic and aciduric microorganisms such as Streptococcus mutans , Lactobacillus spp., and Scardovia wiggsiae , driving demineralization and biofilm maturation under low-pH conditions [24].”
Bogdanović, M., Mladenović, D. D., Mojović, L. V., Djuriš, J., & Djukić‐Vuković, A. (2024) · Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.1590/s2175-97902024e23272 · Cited by 12
Min, J.-H., Sarlus, H., & Harris, R. A. (2024) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2024.1467333 · Cited by 11
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“…been concluded that Western dietary habits, characterized by a high consumption of processed meats, sugar-rich dairy products, refined vegetable oils, and processed cereals, may alter the oral microbial composition, favoring an increase in acidogenic microorganisms and periodontal pathogens [74].”
Impact of oral microbiota on pathophysiology of GVHD
Yamamoto, A., Kambara, Y., & Fujiwara, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1132983 · Cited by 12
Unveiling the Immunomodulatory Potential of Phenolic Compounds in Food Allergies
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“In contrast, a diet rich in fibre, whole grains, fruits and vegetables can promote a more alkaline pH in the mouth, which can support the growth of beneficial bacteria, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium [138].”
BackgroundLestari, K. D., Dwiputri, E., Tan, G. H. K., Sulijaya, B., Soeroso, Y., Natalina, N., Harsas, N. A., & Takahashi, N. (2023) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina59101778 · Cited by 8
“…associated with periodontal disease because it gives microorganisms nutritional substrates, encourages the development of a microenvironment that is favorable for the survival and multiplication of specific periodontal pathogen bacteria, and inhibits the growth of other microorganisms [37].”
BackgroundZhang, H., Chen, A., Li, S., Chen, K., You, X., Bian, Y., Li, C., Liu, S., Huang, J., & Zhang, S. (2025) · Electrophoresis · doi:10.1002/elps.202400160 · Cited by 8
Beyond Genetics: Exploring Lifestyle, Microbiome, and Social Determinants in Oral Cancer Development
Menon, A., Mutalik, V. S., Chen, Y., Ponamgi, S., Peela, S., Schroth, R. J., Ghavami, S., & Chelikani, P. (2025) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers17071094 · Cited by 11
“Westernized diets containing farmed animal meats, high-sugar dairy products, refined vegetable oils, and processed grains are associated with increased acid-producing and acid-tolerant organisms in oral microbiota [148].”
Diet and nutrition key factors for oral microbiota composition: a systematic review
Castro, H., Urías-Orona, V., Méndez-López, L. F., Arreguín, A., & Garza, M. A. G. (2025) · Food & Nutrition Research · doi:10.29219/fnr.v69.11956 · Cited by 8
Staufenbiel, I., Adam, K., Hahn, A., Kerlikowsky, F., Flohr, M., Schlueter, N., & Vach, K. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15153344 · Cited by 8
Amato, M., Santonocito, S., Bruno, M. T., Polizzi, A., Mastroianni, A., Chaurasia, A., & Isola, G. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31061 · Cited by 8
“Typical histological features of oral and periodontal [79] benign lesions caused by HPV infection include koilocytosis, acanthosis and papillomatosis which, coupled to the clinical appearance, suggest the existence of the infection [80,81].”
BackgroundSelf-citationShanmugamprema, D., Muthuswamy, K., & Selvakumar, S. (2024) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422424000295 · Cited by 8
Characterizing the supragingival microbiome of healthy pregnant women
Zhang, Y., Wu, Z., Li, L., Wang, X., Fan, W., & Zhao, J. H. (2022) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2022.1016523 · Cited by 8
Liu, J., Zhang, Y., Li, X., Hou, Z., Wang, B., Chen, L., & Chen, M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-02292-5 · Cited by 10
“Dietary inflammation not only influences the composition of the gut microbiota, but is also closely linked to the oral microbiota 24 .”
Xu, F., Guo, Y., Thomas, S. C., Saxena, A., Hwang, S., Vardhan, M., & Li, X. (2025) · International Journal of Oral Science · doi:10.1038/s41368-025-00376-6 · Cited by 10
Links between oral diseases and metabolic syndrome: a narrative review
Syed, H., Sehra, S., Farzadi, S., & Niazi, S. A. (2025) · BDJ · doi:10.1038/s41415-025-8324-0 · Cited by 7
“38 This shift has not only given rise to oral diseases but also systemic diseases, such as diabetes and MetS.”
An increase in Fusobacterium is associated with the severity of oral mucositis after radiotherapy
Ue, A., Tamaki, Y., Usuda, H., Yamamori, U., Burioka, H., Nagano, N., Uno, M., Sonoyama, Y., Okamoto, T., & Wada, K. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-14125-6 · Cited by 7
“For instance, dietary changes due to mucositis-related pain and poor oral hygiene may disturb microbial balance, contributing to dysbiosis 54,55 .”
Qi, Q., Gao, C., Meng, X., Liu, W., Xue, Y., & Yan, Y. (2025) · Journal Of Clinical Periodontology · doi:10.1111/jcpe.70016 · Cited by 6
Zhang, H., Tian, W., Qi, G., Zhou, B., & Sun, Y. (2025) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-025-01201-w · Cited by 7
“Diet not only supplies essential nutrients to the oral microbiome but also fosters the survival and proliferation of microorganisms that can efficiently utilize the host's specific dietary resources through selective pressure [31, 32].”
Dhull, K. S., Dutta, B., Pattanaik, S., Gupta, A., Indira, M., & Wandile, B. V. (2024) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.58170 · Cited by 8
“This selective pressure can precipitate pathological alterations in the oral microbiota [48].”
BackgroundExamining the Composition of the Oral Microbiota as a Tool to Identify Responders to Dietary Changes
Vach, K., Al-Ahmad, A., Anderson, A., Woelber, J., Karygianni, L., Wittmer, A., & Hellwig, E. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14245389 · Cited by 6
“When analysing the impact of dietary changes, it is common to present the mean values of individual changes for a series of bacteria [22,23], yielding a profile of mean values, whereby this type of presentation implicitly suggests that this profile is the typical profile for all individuals.”
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Ma, R., Yu, X., Huang, C., Xue, F., Hou, R., Wu, W., Feng, F., Bi, W., Zhang, L., Liu, J., et al. (2025) · BMC Microbiology · doi:10.1186/s12866-025-04084-3 · Cited by 6
“This is due to the role of microbiota in food processing and nutrient absorption, which are critical for the survival in wild conditions [8].”
Renno, A. J., Shields, R. C., & McLellan, L. K. (2025) · Journal of Bacteriology · doi:10.1128/jb.00066-25 · Cited by 10
“Diet is a major determinant of the composition of the oral microbiome (reviewed in reference [38]).”
Mao, J.-S., Cui, H.-Y., Zhou, X.-Z., & Zhang, S. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17193150 · Cited by 6
“Cross-sectional analyses revealed a significant inverse correlation between dietary fiber density and periodontitis risk, which is primarily mediated through modulation of the oral microbiome, mitigating inflammatory responses, and maintaining metabolic homeostasis [10].”
Unraveling the Endodontic Archaeome: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis
de Cena, J. A., Castro, J. A. D. V., Belmok, A., Salles, L. P., de Oliveira, L. A., Stefani, C. M., & Damé‐Teixeira, N. (2023) · Journal of Endodontics · doi:10.1016/j.joen.2023.07.025 · Cited by 7
Food intervention strategy for oral microbiome: A review
Zhang, Y., Wang, B., Bai, J., Wei, L., Chen, X., Song, J., Liu, Y., Suo, H., & Wang, C. (2024) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104514 · Cited by 6
Oral microbiome: a doubtful predictor but potential target of cardiovascular diseases
Cheng, C. K., & Huang, Y. (2023) · Medical Review · doi:10.1515/mr-2023-0015 · Cited by 6
“vitamin A-E, and K) are confirmed to alter oral microbiome, and suppress periodontal inflammation and periodontitis progression [12].”
BackgroundPetrenya, N., Brustad, M., Hopstock, L. A., Holde, G. E., & Jönsson, B. (2024) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980023002690 · Cited by 6
Yang, S., He, Y., Ma, Y., Wang, R., Wu, Y., & Wu, W. (2025) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2025.112727 · Cited by 5
“Furthermore, the absence of tooth can result in a reduction in mastication efficiency, alterations in dietary patterns (Xu et al., 2023), and subsequent impacts on the composition and diversity of the oral microbiota (Santonocito et al., 2022).”
Brown, J. L., Johnston, W., Butcher, M. C., Burleigh, M. C., & Ramage, G. (2025) · npj Antimicrobials and Resistance · doi:10.1038/s44259-025-00156-6 · Cited by 7
“The diet continues to have profound effects on microbialcolonisationthroughoutadulthood,withpoordietarychoicesand alterationofplaqueecology,disruptinghomeostasis 32,33 .”
Irfan, B., Ghafarian, A. M., Salahie, A., Shihabi, K., Ewidat, O., Riyad, N., Kamel, M., Khan, I., & Tesfaye, B. (2025) · Journal of Craniofacial Surgery · doi:10.1097/scs.0000000000012226 · Cited by 5
Reytor-González, C., Román-Galeano, N. M., Aules-Curicama, L. S., Cevallos-Villacis, C. D., González, E., Gavilanes, D. J., Horowitz, R., & Simancas-Racines, D. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27052385 · Cited by 5
Çelik, M. N., Dazıroğlu, M. E. Ç., Atabılen, B., Nanì, M. F., Romano, B., Ağagündüz, D., & Capasso, R. (2026) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2026.118945 · Cited by 8
Role of ketogenic diet and its effect on the periodontium. A scoping review
Taher, H. A., Salah, A., Rammal, C., & Varma, S. R. (2024) · Frontiers in Oral Health · doi:10.3389/froh.2024.1364578 · Cited by 5
Chen, X., Han, R., Liu, X., & Xu, J. (2025) · BMC Oral Health · doi:10.1186/s12903-025-06151-7 · Cited by 5
“Furthermore, dietary antioxidants may exert an influence on the composition of the oral microbiota, a crucial factor in the development of periodontitis [56].”
Live dietary microbes and reduced prevalence of periodontitis: A cross‐sectional study
Lin, J., Yang, H., Lin, Z., & Xu, L. (2024) · Oral Diseases · doi:10.1111/odi.14869 · Cited by 5
Characterising healthy Australian oral microbiomes for 'super donor' selection.
Nath, S., Zilm, P., Jamieson, L., Ketagoda, D. H. K., Kapellas, K., & Weyrich, L. (2024) · E -journal of dentistry · doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2024.105435 · Cited by 6
Kania, M., Drab, Z., Dąbrowska, M., Samborowska, E., Żeber‐Lubecka, N., Kulecka, M., Klupa, T., & Gregorczyk‐Maga, I. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-16690-2 · Cited by 5
Integrative multi-omics analysis reveals oral microbiome-metabolome signatures of obesity
Shibl, A. A., Denekew, T. W., Ahmad, A. R., Abdelrazig, S., Leonor, C., Utenova, L., Zhang, G., AbdelBaqi, M., Malla, Y., Arshad, M., et al. (2026) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116819 · Cited by 7
Ding, L., Song, L., Han, Y., Wang, J., Lyu, Y., Song, M., Li, X., He, W., Chen, Q., Ding, P., et al. (2026) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2026.01.017 · Cited by 5
Host Microbiomes Influence the Effects of Diet on Inflammation and Cancer
Mahmood, R., Voisin, A., Olof, H., Khorasaniha, R., Lawal, S. A., & Armstrong, H. (2023) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers15020521 · Cited by 4
“As well, protein breakdown creates a neutral-alkaline environment that can promote periodontal disease, which is a risk factor for oral cancer and oral cancer survival [70,89].”
BackgroundInfluentialEvolutionary History of Periodontitis and the Oral Microbiota—Lessons for the Future
Shanmugasundaram, S., Nayak, N., Karmakar, S., Chopra, A., & Arangaraju, R. (2024) · Current Oral Health Reports · doi:10.1007/s40496-024-00370-7 · Cited by 5
“Current evidence indicates that the pre-historic hunter-gatherer populations may have had lower rates of periodontitis and better oral health than Neolithic and modern humans [15, 30 •• , 31 • , 32–34].”
Unveiling the Link Between Oral Microbiome Diversity and Biological Ageing: A Cross‐Sectional Study
Hou, J., Weng, A., Yang, Z., Huang, X., Chen, W., & Wang, X.-Y. (2025) · Journal Of Clinical Periodontology · doi:10.1111/jcpe.14172 · Cited by 4
Chou, Y., Han, M., Chiu, T. H. T., Lee, M.-S., Chiou, J., Chen, J., & Chen, Y. (2025) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.19599 · Cited by 4
“Diet may further induce dysbiosis in these conditions [25, 26], potentially amplifying systemic inflammation and its downstream effects on cognition.”
Riccomi, G., Rosselli, L., Marchesi, M., Guidi, F., Taloni, M., Ricci, G., Pellegrino, C., & Wilkin, S. (2025) · Journal of Proteomics · doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2025.105503 · Cited by 3
Ying, Y., Zhang, L., Zhou, H., Sun, R., Dai, J., & Zhang, W. (2025) · International Dental Journal · doi:10.1016/j.identj.2025.103922 · Cited by 4
“20 21-23 Public health campaigns should adapt these principles to local culinary practices — for example, through culturally familiar foods such as soy-based products, leafy vegetables, and locally available fish — to improve feasibility and adherence among adolescents.”
Impact of an Essential-Oil-Based Oral Rinse on Oral and Gut Microbiota Diversity: A Pilot Study
Bona, E., Cavarra, F., Caramaschi, A., Massa, N., Bazzano, C., Patini, R., Rocchetti, V., & Rimondini, L. (2025) · Microbiology Research · doi:10.3390/microbiolres16120251 · Cited by 3
“Furthermore, certain dietary components, such as polyphenols, prebiotics and probiotics have been shown to influence oral microbial composition, promoting a more balanced microbiota that is less prone to disease [13,14].”
The Effect of Oral Microbiota on the Severity and Prognosis of Stroke
Yusupov, F. A., Yuldashev, A. A., Yusupov, A., & Abdykadyrov, M. (2025) · Bulletin of Science and Practice · doi:10.33619/2414-2948/110/17 · Cited by 3
Association Between Intestinal Diseases and Periodontitis: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis
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“…that dysbiosis of the oral microbiota, which has a detrimental impact on the intestinal microbiome, could potentially be another cause of diseases ranging from inflammation to malignancy, in addition to environmental and genetic factors (Lam et al. 2023; Santonocito et al. 2022; Hou et al. 2022).”
Exacerbating effects of Western dietary habits on experimentally induced periodontitis in rats
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“[14] Several clinical studies have established that plaque accumulation is promoted by the consumption of glycemic carbohydrates (such as sugar and refined flour) and pro-inflammatory foods like fried meats and fatty acids (including saturated, trans, and omega-6 fatty acids) at high levels,…”
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The influence of parenteral nutrition on the condition of the oral cavity: literature review
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“[4,5] The correlation between dairy intake and the risk of periodontal diseases has been a subject of considerable interest.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Santonocito, S., Giudice, A., Polizzi, A., Troiano, G., Merlo, E. M., Sclafani, R., Grosso, G., & Isola, G.
- Affiliations
- University of Catania (IT)
- Magna Graecia University (IT)
- University of Foggia (IT)
- University of Messina (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Polizzi, Alessandro
- Grosso, Giuseppe
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2022-06-11
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 2426
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC9227938
- OpenAlex
- W4282561604
- Semantic Scholar
- bb7c18b5738ad38e230c391570d7e5db5f5f956a
- Cited by
- 144
- References
- 153
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 5.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Prof. G. Isola, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › Periodontics › Oral microbiology and periodontitis research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › General Dentistry › Dental Health and Care Utilization
- Keywords
- diet, oral microbiota, periodontitis, periodontal disease, oral dysbiosis, inflammation, immune response, sugar consumption, acidogenic bacteria, periodontal pathogens
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Diet, Immune System, Inflammation, Periodontal Diseases, Periodontitis, Microbiota, Dysbiosis
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Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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