Comorbidity of DSM-IV Pathological Gambling and Other Psychiatric Disorders: Results From the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To present nationally representative data on lifetime prevalence and comorbidity of pathological gambling with other psychiatric disorders and to evaluate sex differences in the strength of the comorbid associations. METHOD: Data were derived from a large national sample of the United States. Some 43,093 household and group quarters residents age 18 years and older participated in the 2001-2002 survey. Prevalence and associations of lifetime pathological gambling and other lifetime psychiatric disorders are presented. The diagnostic interview was the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-DSM-IV Version. Fifteen symptom items operationalized the 10 pathological gambling criteria. RESULTS: The lifetime prevalence rate of pathological gambling was 0.42%. Almost three quarters (73.2%) of pathological gamblers had an alcohol use disorder, 38.1% had a drug use disorder, 60.4% had nicotine dependence, 49.6% had a mood disorder, 41.3% had an anxiety disorder, and 60.8% had a personality disorder. A large majority of the associations between pathological gambling and substance use, mood, anxiety, and personality disorders were overwhelmingly positive and significant (p < .05), even after controlling for sociodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Male sex, black race, divorced/separated/widowed marital status, middle age, and living in the West and Midwest were associated with increased risk for pathological gambling. Further, associations between alcohol dependence, any drug use disorder, drug abuse, nicotine dependence, major depressive episode, and generalized anxiety disorder and pathological gambling were stronger among women than men (p > .05). CONCLUSION: Pathological gambling is highly comorbid with substance use, mood, anxiety, and personality disorders, suggesting that treatment for one condition should involve assessment and possible concomitant treatment for comorbid conditions.
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Epidemiological research indicates that over half of pathological gamblers have a lifetime mood disorder, over 40% have a lifetime anxiety disorder, and about 23% have antisocial personality disorder.
“Epidemiological research indicates that over 50% of PGs have a lifetime mood disorder, over 40% have a lifetime anxiety disorder, and about 23% have ASPD (Kessler et al. 2008; Petry, Stinson & Grant, 2005).”
From Subtyping Pathological Gamblers Based on Impulsivity, Depression, and Anxiety (2010) · cites this paper as Petry, Stinson & Grant, 2005
Gambling disorder frequently co-occurs with substance use disorders, particularly alcohol and nicotine, as well as mood and anxiety disorders.
“Furthermore, gambling disorder frequently co-occurs with substance use disorders, particularly alcohol and nicotine, as well as mood and anxiety disorders (Conway, Compton, Stinson, & Grant, 2006; B. F. Grant et al., 2004b; Petry et al., 2005; Ronzitti, Kraus, Hoff, & Potenza, 2018).”
From Cued for Risk: Evidence for an Incentive Sensitization Framework to Explain the Interplay between Stress and Anxiety, Substance Abuse, and Reward Uncertainty in Disordered Gambling Behavior (2019) · cites this paper as Petry et al., 2005
Alcohol and nicotine are the most often misused substances among individuals with gambling pathology.
“In particular, alcohol and nicotine are the most often misused substances among individuals with gambling pathology (Petry et al., 2005).”
From Cued for Risk: Evidence for an Incentive Sensitization Framework to Explain the Interplay between Stress and Anxiety, Substance Abuse, and Reward Uncertainty in Disordered Gambling Behavior (2019) · cites this paper as Petry et al., 2005
Approximately 37% of subthreshold and clinical gamblers suffer from an anxiety disorder.
“Approximately 37% (range: 14.0% −60.3%) of subthreshold and clinical gamblers suffer from an anxiety disorder (Kessler et al., 2008; Lorains et al., 2011; Petry et al., 2005)”
From Cued for Risk: Evidence for an Incentive Sensitization Framework to Explain the Interplay between Stress and Anxiety, Substance Abuse, and Reward Uncertainty in Disordered Gambling Behavior (2019) · cites this paper as Petry et al., 2005
Individuals with nicotine or alcohol related substance use disorders are more likely to meet diagnostic criteria for gambling disorder compared to the general population.
“Similarly, individuals with nicotine or alcohol related substance use disorders are also more likely to meet the diagnostic criteria for GD compared to the general population (Krmpotich et al., 2015; Petry et al., 2005; Rennert et al., 2014).”
From Cued for Risk: Evidence for an Incentive Sensitization Framework to Explain the Interplay between Stress and Anxiety, Substance Abuse, and Reward Uncertainty in Disordered Gambling Behavior (2019) · cites this paper as Petry et al., 2005
A meta-analysis including 11 studies reported an average comorbidity rate of 28.1% for alcohol use disorders and 60.1% for nicotine dependence in individuals with subthreshold or clinical gambling severity.
“A recent meta-analysis including 11 studies conducted between 1998-2010 reported an average comorbidity rate of 28.1% (range: 9.9% - 73.2%) for alcohol use disorders and 60.1% (range: 34.9% - 76.3%) for nicotine dependence in individuals with subthreshold or clinical gambling severity (Lorains et al., 2011; Petry et al., 2005).”
From Cued for Risk: Evidence for an Incentive Sensitization Framework to Explain the Interplay between Stress and Anxiety, Substance Abuse, and Reward Uncertainty in Disordered Gambling Behavior (2019) · cites this paper as Petry et al., 2005
Alcohol use disorders were significantly related to gambling disorder even after controlling for sociodemographic variables highly associated with the risk for gambling pathology.
“These effects do not appear to be merely the result of shared environmental risk factors, as supported by the work of Petry and colleagues, which reported that alcohol use disorders were significantly related to gambling disorder even after controlling for sociodemographic variables highly associated with the risk for gambling pathology, including ethnicity, age, sex, marital status and region of”
From Cued for Risk: Evidence for an Incentive Sensitization Framework to Explain the Interplay between Stress and Anxiety, Substance Abuse, and Reward Uncertainty in Disordered Gambling Behavior (2019) · cites this paper as Petry et al., 2005
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“Participants with a lifetime PG diagnosis (that is, prevalence = 0.4%, n = 195) were likely to report experiencing other psychiatric disorders: 73% reported an alcohol use disorder; 60% reported nicotine dependence; 50% a mood disorder; 43% an anxiety disorder; and 61% a PD.12 The NCS-R reported similar overlap betwee…”
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“This technique has already been implemented in the treatment of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder [41] and could be effective in PG as well. For example, studies have indicated abnormal prefrontal function in PG [6, 7•, 21], and neurofeedback training can be focused on normalizing frontal electroen422 Curr Psych…”
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LaPlante, D. A., Schümann, A., LaBrie, R. A., & Shaffer, H. J. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.02.015 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
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“Since mental disorders are associated with gambling (Desai and Potenza, 2008; Kessler et al., 2008; Petry et al., 2005; Zimmerman et al., 2006) and the perpetration and victimization of IPV and child maltreatment (Afifi et al.”
BackgroundAn Empirical Study of Gender Differences in Online Gambling
McCormack, A., Shorter, G. W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2012) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-012-9341-x · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“Differences in reasons for gambling between males and females may reflect differential comorbidities between genders, which in turn may be important for understanding etiology and treatment (Petry et al. 2005).”
Olanzapine in the Treatment of Pathological Gambling
McElroy, S. L., Nelson, E. B., Welge, J. A., Kaehler, L. A., & Keck, P. E. (2008) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v69n0314 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
A review of gambling disorder and substance use disorders
Rash, C. J., Weinstock, J., & Patten, R. V. (2016) · Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation · doi:10.2147/sar.s83460 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Quinte longitudinal study of gambling and problem gambling
Williams, R. J., Hann, R. G., Schopflocher, D., West, B. L., McLaughlin, P., White, N. J., King, K., & Flexhaug, T. (2015) · Open ULeth Scholarship (OPUS) (University of Lethbridge) · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Kovács, I., Richman, M. J., Janka, Z., Maraz, A., & Andó, B. (2017) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.09.023 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Fauth‐Bühler, M., Mann, K. F., & Potenza, M. N. (2016) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12378 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“In the NESARC study, associations between any alcohol use disorder and alcohol dependence were especially strong (Petry et al. 2005).”
BackgroundInternet Gambling Is Common in College Students and Associated with Poor Mental Health
Petry, N. M., & Weinstock, J. (2007) · The American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1080/10550490701525673 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Self-citationA voxel-based morphometry study comparing problem gamblers, alcohol abusers, and healthy controls
van Holst, R. J., de Ruiter, M. B., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., & Goudriaan, A. E. (2012) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.12.025 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
LaPlante, D. A., Nelson, S. E., LaBrie, R. A., & Shaffer, H. J. (2011) · The European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckp177 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Disordered gambling: the evolving concept of behavioral addiction
Clark, L. (2014) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12558 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Evaluation of the continuum of gambling problems using the DSM‐IV
Strong, D. R., & Kahler, C. W. (2007) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01789.x · Cited by 145 · see citing works
An empirical evaluation of proposed changes for gambling diagnosis in the DSM-5
Petry, N., Blanco, C., Stinchfield, R., & Volberg, R. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04087.x · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“The Substance Use Disorders Workgroup of the DSM-5 [1,2] suggested moving the disorder to the chapter related to drug and alcohol use disorders because of consistently high rates of comorbidity [3,4], similar presentations of some symptoms [5,6], and genetic and physiological overlap [7–9].”
Self-citationSensation-seeking: dopaminergic modulation and risk for psychopathology
Norbury, A., & Husain, M. (2015) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.04.015 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Billieux, J., Lagrange, G., der Linden, M. V., Lançon, C., Adida, M., & Jeanningros, R. (2012) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.01.001 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“The nosography of pathological gambling has been debated, mainly because of its high comorbidity with substance use disorders (Petry et al., 2005).”
BackgroundAlegría, A. A., Petry, N. M., Hasin, D. S., Liu, S.-M., Grant, B. F., & Blanco, C. (2009) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852900020113 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“Disordered gambling is associated with substantial interpersonal, financial, and legal difficulties as well as increased rates of substance abuse, mood and anxiety disorders, and suicidality.(3)-(6) Several studies in the United States(510) and other countries, including Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Sweden(1114…”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationSubtyping Pathological Gamblers Based on Impulsivity, Depression, and Anxiety
Ledgerwood, D. M., & Petry, N. M. (2010) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0019906 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Self-citationProblematic mobile phone use in adolescence: a cross-sectional study
Martinotti, G., Villella, C., Di Thiene, D., Di Nicola, M., Bria, P., Conte, G., Cassano, M., Petruccelli, F., Corvasce, N., Janiri, L., et al. (2011) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-011-0422-6 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“Problematic mobile phone use is associated with different conditions in the two genders; this could reflect the difference in prevalence of gambling and other addictive behaviours in the two genders, in line with previous research (Shaffer et al. 1999; Petry et al. 2005; Greenberg et al. 1999).”
ResultChou, K.-L., & Afifi, T. O. (2011) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwr017 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
21st century neurobehavioral theories of decision making in addiction: Review and evaluation
Bickel, W. K., Mellis, A. M., Snider, S. E., Athamneh, L. N., Stein, J. S., & Pope, D. A. (2018) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2017.09.009 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“Addiction is also common among pathological gamblers (Petry et al., 2005).”
BackgroundProblematic Internet Use:Clinical Implications
Liu, T., & Potenza, M. N. (2007) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852900015339 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Pathological Gambling and Substance Use Disorders
Wareham, J. D., & Potenza, M. N. (2010) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.3109/00952991003721118 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Little Use of Treatment Among Problem Gamblers
Cunningham, J. A. (2005) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.56.8.1024-a · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Big Five personality traits and alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, and gambling disorder comorbidity.
Dash, G. F., Slutske, W. S., Martin, N. G., Statham, D. J., Arpana Agrawal, A., & Lynskey, M. T. (2019) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000468 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“Similarly, although the strength of the pairwise associations of the disorders in men and women did not differ significantly, the associations of GD with ND and CUD appeared substantially larger among women than men, which replicates findings in a national U.S. sample (Petry et al., 2005).”
Compulsive features in behavioural addictions: the case of pathological gambling
el‐Guebaly, N., Mudry, T., Zohar, J., Tavares, H., & Potenza, M. N. (2011) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03546.x · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Dopamine release in ventral striatum of pathological gamblers losing money
Linnet, J., Peterson, E., Doudet, D. J., Gjedde, A., & Møller, A. (2010) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01591.x · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Problem Gambling and Families: A Systematic Review
Kourgiantakis, T., Saint‐Jacques, M., & Tremblay, J. (2013) · Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions · doi:10.1080/1533256x.2013.838130 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“…review did not include literature on the impact of problem gambling on the gambling individual because there is much more abundant literature on problem gambling individuals and co-occurring disorders (Petry et al., 2005), and the goal was to better understand this problem in relation to families.”
BackgroundSlutske, W. S., Ellingson, J. M., Richmond‐Rakerd, L. S., Zhu, G., & Martin, N. G. (2013) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2013.11 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“7 among men) was similar to the sex difference observed in the NESARC study (Petry et al., 2005).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialUsing the theory of planned behavior to predict gambling behavior.
Martin, R. J., Usdan, S., Nelson, S. E., Umstattd, M. R., LaPlante, D. A., Perko, M. A., & Shaffer, H. J. (2010) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0018452 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Dopamine Genes and Pathological Gambling in Discordant Sib-Pairs
Lobo, D. S. S., Vallada, H., Knight, J., Martins, S. S., Tavares, H., Gentil, V., & Kennedy, J. L. (2007) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-007-9060-x · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Ledgerwood, D. M., Alessi, S. M., Phoenix, N., & Petry, N. M. (2009) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.06.011 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“Further, many of the studies cited above did not control for substance use disorders, despite recent prelavence data that suggests up to 73% of pathological gamblers have a lifetime comorbid alcohol use disorder and up to 38% have a lifetime substance use disorder (Petry et al., 2005).”
Self-citationPotenza, M. N., Koran, L. M., & Pallanti, S. (2009) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.06.036 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“…other drug dependence, mood disorders (including manic and depressive episodes), anxiety disorders (including panic, phobic and generalized anxiety), and personality disorders (including avoidant, dependent, obsessivecompulsive, paranoid, schizoid, histrionic, and antisocial) (Petry et al., 2005).”
BackgroundPsychological treatments for gambling disorder
Rash, C. J., & Petry, N. M. (2014) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s40883 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationJiménez‐Múrcia, S., Stinchfield, R. D., Álvarez‐Moya, E. M., Jaurrieta, N., García‐Bueno, B., Granero, R., Aymamí, M. N., Gómez‐Peña, M., Martínez-Giménez, R., Fernández‐Aranda, F., et al. (2008) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-008-9104-x · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“Starting with the DSM-III (APA 1980), PG has been considered an impulse control disorder, with strong associations with other comorbid psychiatric disorders, including affective and anxiety disorders (Dannon et al. 2006), personality disorders ( Petry et al. 2005 ), psychoactive substance use disorders (Desai 2006), o…”
BackgroundBarrault, S., & Varescon, I. (2013) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0150 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Disordered gambling: etiology, trajectory, and clinical considerations.
Shaffer, H. J., & Martin, R. J. (2011) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-040510-143928 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
- Authors
- Petry, N. M., Stinson, F. S., & Grant, B. F.
- Affiliations
- UConn Health (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- ORCID
- Petry, Nancy M.
- Venue
- The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc
- Published
- 2005-05-15
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 05
- Pages
- 564-574
- ISSN
- 0160-6689 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2016693718
- Cited by
- 1,245
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 62 · 2016: 84 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 96 · 2013: 87 · 2012: 83
- FWCI
- 51.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5p50aa003510-27)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (P50- AA03510)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH060417, R01 MH60417)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA014618, R01-DA14618, R01-DA13444, P50DA009241, R01DA016855, P50-DA-0-9241, R01DA013444)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
- Keywords
- gambling addiction, comorbidities, mental illness, alcoholism, drug use disorders, nicotine dependence, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, sex differences, lifetime prevalence, risk factors, National Comorbidity Survey
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Mental Disorders, Depressive Disorder, Female, Gambling, Health Surveys, Humans, Disruptive, Impulse Control, and Conduct Disorders, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, United States, Cohort Studies, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Logistic Models, Substance-Related Disorders, Alcohol-Related Disorders, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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