Inducing and modulating intrusive emotional memories: A review of the trauma film paradigm
Abstract
Highly affect-laden memory intrusions are a feature of several psychological disorders with intrusive images of trauma especially associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The trauma film paradigm provides a prospective experimental tool for investigating analogue peri-traumatic cognitive mechanisms underlying intrusion development. We review several historical papers and some more recent key studies that have used the trauma film paradigm. A heuristic diagram is presented, designed to simplify predictions about analogue peri-traumatic processing and intrusion development, which can also be related to the processing elements of recent cognitive models of PTSD. Results show intrusions can be induced in the laboratory and their frequency amplified/attenuated in line with predictions. Successful manipulations include competing task type (visuospatial vs. verbal) and use of a cognitive coping strategy. Studies show that spontaneous peri-traumatic dissociation also affects intrusion frequency although attempts to manipulate dissociation have failed. It is hoped that further use of this paradigm may lead to prophylactic training for at risk groups and an improved understanding of intrusions across psychopathologies.
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Film stimuli with traumatic content can induce intrusive memories that share characteristics with those experienced following actual trauma.
“Numerous studies have demonstrated that film stimuli with traumatic content can induce intrusive memories that share characteristics with those experienced following actual trauma”
From Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application (2019) · cites this paper as Holmes & Bourne, 2008
The trauma film paradigm is a widely-used method for inducing analogue trauma symptoms by asking participants to view video footage with traumatic content.
“This is a widely-used method for inducing analogue trauma symptoms, by asking participants to view video footage with traumatic content”
From Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application (2019) · cites this paper as Holmes & Bourne, 2008
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Streb, M., Mecklinger, A., Anderson, M. C., Lass-Hennemann, J., & Michael, T. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.12.032 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
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Visuospatial working memory interference with recollections of trauma
Lilley, S. A., Andrade, J., Turpin, G., Sabin‐Farrell, R., & Holmes, E. A. (2009) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466508x398943 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationIntrusive memories to traumatic footage: the neural basis of their encoding and involuntary recall
Clark, I. A., Holmes, E. A., Woolrich, M. W., & Mackay, C. E. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715002007 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
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Vividness of general mental imagery is associated with the occurrence of intrusive memories
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Psychological Effect of an Analogue Traumatic Event Reduced by Sleep Deprivation
Porcheret, K., Holmes, E. A., Goodwin, G. M., Foster, R. G., & Wulff, K. (2015) · Sleep · doi:10.5665/sleep.4802 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationTrauma-Focused Art Therapy in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Pilot Study
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An experimental analogue study into the role of abstract thinking in trauma-related rumination
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Deeprose, C., Zhang, S., DeJong, H., Dalgleish, T., & Holmes, E. A. (2012) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.10.008 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Participants are shown a short aversive film in controlled laboratory conditions, allowing testing of specific hypotheses relating to subsequent involuntary memories (see Holmes & Bourne, 2008 for a review).”
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Self-citationNixon, R. D. V., Cain, N., Nehmy, T., & Seymour, M. (2009) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2008.10.004 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Hagenaars, M. A., Holmes, E. A., Klaassen, F., & Elzinga, B. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1386959 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
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Perceptual processing during trauma, priming and the development of intrusive memories
Sündermann, O., Hauschildt, M., & Ehlers, A. (2013) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.10.001 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Count out your intrusions: Effects of verbal encoding on intrusive memories
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Acute effects of alcohol on the development of intrusive memories
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Olatunji, B. O., & Fan, Q. (2015) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.06.002 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Memory amplification for trauma: investigating the role of analogue PTSD symptoms in the laboratory
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Screen Trauma: Visual Media and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
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Clark, I. A., Niehaus, K. E., Duff, E. P., Di Simplicio, M. C., Clifford, G. D., Smith, S. M., Mackay, C. E., Woolrich, M. W., & Holmes, E. A. (2014) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.07.010 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
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Pre-Stressor Interference Control and Intrusive Memories
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Disgust propensity as a predictor of intrusive cognitions following a distressing film
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Self-citationThe role of stress during memory reactivation on intrusive memories
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Neural correlates of experimental trauma memory retrieval
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The effects of nicotine on intrusive memories in nonsmokers
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Eyewitness or earwitness: The role of mental imagery in intrusion development
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Effects of acute cortisol administration on perceptual priming of trauma-related material
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Intrusions in trauma and psychosis: Information processing and phenomenology
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A prospective examination of risk factors in the development of intrusions following a trauma analog
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- Authors
- Holmes, E. A., & Bourne, C.
- Affiliations
- Warneford Hospital (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Holmes, Emily A.
- ORCID
- Holmes, Emily A.
- Venue
- Acta Psychologica
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-03
- Volume
- 127
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 553-566
- ISSN
- 0001-6918 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2079931701
- Cited by
- 410
- References
- 100
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 23.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Acta Psychologica (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (RES-061-23-0030)
- Royal Society
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Keywords
- trauma film paradigm, intrusive memories, post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociation, cognitive coping
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Emotions, Humans, Memory, Motion Pictures, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Stress, Psychological, Imagery, Psychotherapy
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