The DOI matches its Crossref record; 188 of the 188 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 342 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Temperature regulation in women: Effects of the menstrual cycle
Open accessAbstract
Core body temperature changes across the ovulatory menstrual cycle, such that it is 0.3°C to 0.7°C higher in the post-ovulatory luteal phase when progesterone is high compared with the pre-ovulatory follicular phase. This temperature difference, which is most evident during sleep or immediately upon waking before any activity, is used by women as a retrospective indicator of an ovulatory cycle. Here, we review both historical and current literature aimed at characterizing changes in core body temperature across the menstrual cycle, considering the assessment of the circadian rhythm of core body temperature and thermoregulatory responses to challenges, including heat and cold exposure, exercise, and fever. We discuss potential mechanisms for the thermogenic effect of progesterone and the temperature-lowering effect of estrogen, and discuss effects on body temperature of exogenous formulations of these hormones as contained in oral contraceptives. We review new wearable temperature sensors aimed at tracking daily temperature changes of women across multiple menstrual cycles and highlight the need for future research on the validity and reliability of these devices. Despite the change in core body temperature across the menstrual cycle being so well identified, there remain gaps in our current understanding, particularly about the underlying mechanisms and microcircuitry involved in the temperature changes.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review synthesizes historical and current evidence that core body temperature is higher in the luteal phase than the follicular phase and that thermoregulatory thresholds shift upward with high progesterone. It also highlights unresolved mechanisms, limited data on fever across the cycle, and the need for independent validation of wearable temperature-tracking devices.
Key findings
- Resting/basal core body temperature is 0.3°C to 0.7°C higher in the luteal phase than the follicular phase, and most 24-h studies show an increased mesor and a blunted nocturnal decline/amplitude in the luteal phase.
- Controlled constant-routine and ultradian nap studies generally find no change in circadian phase of core body temperature between follicular and luteal phases, though some semi-controlled studies report phase delays.
- Progesterone has a thermogenic effect, estrogen has a temperature-lowering effect, and the progesterone:estrogen ratio—rather than progesterone alone—may be critical for the luteal-phase core body temperature increase and blunted amplitude.
- Wearable devices show promise for tracking ovulatory cycles, but the review notes that independent validation against gold standards is still needed; one wrist-skin study detected a pre-ovulatory temperature nadir in only 41% of cycles.
Methods
- Narrative literature review using PubMed and Google Scholar searches for English-language, peer-reviewed clinical and experimental studies on the menstrual cycle and body temperature.
- Search terms included circadian rhythm, progesterone, estrogen/estradiol, luteal phase, follicular phase, ovulation, vasodilation, hypothalamus, oral contraceptives, exercise, heating, heat, fever, cooling, cold, and wearable sensors.
- The review summarizes studies in tables, including 24-h core body temperature studies across menstrual cycle phases and commercial wearable/app studies.
Limitations
- The authors state that mechanisms and microcircuitry underlying menstrual-cycle temperature changes remain incompletely understood, and that there are no data comparing fever patterns in women across menstrual cycle phases.
- The authors state that further independent evaluation of wearable validity and reliability is required, and they note a broader paucity of data from females in biological research.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without a formal systematic-review or meta-analytic protocol; many included studies have small samples, varied measurement sites and protocols, and some rely on self-reported menstrual phase rather than confirmed ovulation.
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Claims the paper makes
252 Not checked yet · 22 Own interpretation · 19 No basis given · 3 Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In contrast, Matsuda-Nakamura and colleagues [121] found that thermal perception did not differ between the luteal and follicular phases when young health women were exposed to a mildly cool environment.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [121] source
The Abstract reports that eight healthy young women were exposed to 23.5 °C and that thermal sensation and pleasantness did not differ between the follicular and luteal phases. The Conclusions likewise state that thermal perception was not affected by menstrual-cycle phase under these experimental conditions. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Estrogen promotes vasodilation in part by stimulating nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin synthesis, and inhibits vasoconstriction by decreasing the production of vasoconstrictors like cyclooxygenase-derived products, angiotensin II, and endothelin-1 [171].”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [171] source
The Arachidonic acid metabolites section says estrogen decreases synthesis of contractile COX metabolites. The Angiotensin II section reports reduced Ang II formation with estrogen replacement, and the Endothelin section reports inhibited ET-1 synthesis. The Conclusions figure summarizes these effects as decreased release or action of vasoconstrictors. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“There is growing evidence from Rance and colleagues [169] showing that estradiol can also affect central thermoregulatory pathways via actions on a group of estrogen-sensitive arcuate neurons that co-express kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin (KNDy neurons) involved in the regulation of GnRH secretion.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [169] source
The Introduction identifies KNDy neurons as estrogen-responsive arcuate neurons that co-express kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin. Section 3 links them to estrogen feedback on GnRH activity, while section 6.3 reports that they participate in estradiol’s modulation of body temperature in rats. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Supported
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There is not always a correlation between the progesterone rise and the core body temperature rise.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Vaginal temperature provides very similar values to rectal temperature [34].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This temperature difference, which is most evident during sleep or immediately upon waking before any activity, is used by women as a retrospective indicator of an ovulatory cycle.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The general thermal status of the body is best represented by central arterial or mixed venous blood temperature [27], which is technically difficult to measure.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Brengelmann GL, 1987
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Of those, esophageal is considered the best approximate of blood temperature [28], and it has been used in some of the key early studies demonstrating changes in body temperature regulation across the menstrual cycle [for example, 29-31].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Mitchell D, 1985, Physiologist
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In women and non-human primates with menstrual cycles [for example, see 25], core body temperature also fluctuates in accordance with the menstrual cycle rhythm.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Other commonly used sites of body temperature measurement, including oral, axilla, and auditory canal or tympanic temperature, provide a much poorer index of core body temperature, primarily because they are contaminated by environmental temperatures [26,28].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [26] source
- Not checked yetcites [28] Mitchell D, 1985, Physiologist
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 80
- It may state two separate claims as one. 111
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As far as we are aware, there are no data comparing patterns of fevers in women across phases of the menstrual cycle.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When not living under constant conditions, the 24-h rhythm in core body temperature is still apparent, however, in addition to circadian influences, it is influenced by other factors, including sleep, which lowers nocturnal core body temperature further, and activity and meals, which raise core body temperature.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In addition to these factors, the amplitude of the circadian rhythm of core body temperature can change as a result of the season, photoperiod, energy intake, water balance, disease, and reproductive status [23].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [23] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Both heat production and heat loss contribute to the circadian variation in heat content, leading to a circadian rhythm in core body temperature [22].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Core body temperature has an endogenously generated circadian rhythm with a period close to 24-h, which is evident even when environmental conditions are kept constant, free of influences from sleep-wake patterns, activity, meals, or light exposure [18,19].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Keefe DL, 1985, Oxford RevReprod Biol
- Not checked yetcites [19] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“A biphasic rhythm in basal core body temperature across the menstrual cycle, with body temperature higher in the luteal phase after ovulation, was described more than 100 years ago by Squire in 1868 and van de Velde in 1928 [cited in 1].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Rectal temperature, with the probe carefully inserted to the correct depth [26], is the next best measure, with the drawback being that it is slow to respond to changes in the thermal status of the body [for example, see 29].”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The thermoregulatory network consists of a central integrative circuit in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus (POA), which orchestrates the activation of thermoeffector mechanisms in response to input from peripheral and central thermoreceptors [4].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Detection of changes in the circadian rhythm of core body temperature across the menstrual cycle requires continuous data recording, which can be achieved accurately and relatively noninvasively through the use of ingestible telemetry pills [35].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This temperature difference, which is most evident during sleep or immediately upon waking before any activity, is used by women as a retrospective indicator of an ovulatory cycle.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Thermoregulation involves a balance between heat gain (metabolic heat production and dry heat gain from the environment) and heat loss (dry and evaporative heat loss to the environment) such that a constant core body temperature can be maintained [8].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The temperature of the gastrointestinal tract is also similar to that of the rectum (on average, about 0.1°C higher), but it does change as the sensor (typically an ingested telemetry pill) moves along the gastrointestinal tract, and is influenced by drinking liquids [26].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [26] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In most placental mammals, core body temperature is regulated around 37°C [9,10].”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The core body temperature curve recorded under constant conditions is one of the gold standard methods to quantify or demonstrate circadian phase, or the output of the central clock (along with melatonin).”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Core body temperature continues to oscillate independently of other physiological rhythms or external time cues between a maximum in the active period (daytime for humans) and a minimum during the inactive period (nocturnal for humans), with an amplitude of 0.8°C to 1.0°C [21].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Moore-Ede MC, 1982
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Progesterone, on the other hand, which rises early in the luteal phase, inhibits pulsatile GnRH and, consequently, LH release; it also prevents the positive feedback effect of elevated estrogen on GnRH and LH [44].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As described above, studies that have investigated skin and core body temperature under constant routine conditions when ambient temperature and behavior are controlled, have shown that the circadian rhythm of distal skin (hands and feet) temperature is phase-advanced, by approximately 100 min, and with a larger amplitude than that of core body temperature [10].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It should be noted that the assays used to measure endogenous progesterone and estrogen (typically estradiol) do not measure synthetic hormones and there is a large variation between individuals in the pharmacokinetics of contraceptive steroids [53].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Consistent with established clinical research, prospective data collected from multiple menstrual cycles in over 120,000 women (~612,000 cycles) using the Natural Cycle app, which included daily basal oral temperature measurement, dates of menstruation, and results of an ovulation prediction kit for some cycles, revealed a mean cycle length of 29.3 days, with a mean follicular phase length of 16.9”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] source
boostedn = 120,000- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The mean LH peak occurs at 14.7 ± 2.4 days [38].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Kisspeptin and neurokinin B, neuropeptides secreted by the ventral hypothalamus, play a key role in regulating GnRH and subsequent gonadotropin secretion [45].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [45] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The POA of the hypothalamus is centrally important for the regulation of both temperature and reproductive function, and there is a linkage between these two systems.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The follicular phase has an interval of between 10 and 20 days and the luteal phase of between 9 and 17 days, with greater inter-individual variance for the follicular phase [38].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Combined oral contraceptives typically contain ethinyl estradiol and a synthetic progestin taken for 21 days, and a placebo taken for 7 days.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The length of the menstrual cycle, timing of ovulation, and hormonal concentrations at any particular timepoint in the menstrual cycle vary between individuals and even from month to month within an individual.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“About 7 days after ovulation, should fertilization and implantation of the conceptus not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and hormone production begins to decline.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Detection of LH in urine using an over-the-counter device is considered a highly accurate marker of impending ovulation [43].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The type of progestin has also varied with generations of oral contraceptive: second-generation progestins (e.g. norgesterel) are more androgenic, and third-generation progestins are anti-androgenic [52].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, oral contraceptive brands differ in the hormonal dose delivered across the 21-day period, with monophasic pills containing a constant dose of progestin and estrogen, and triphasic pills containing a varying dose of hormones designed to mimic the natural menstrual cycle.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these constraints, most studies describing core body temperature changes in detail across the menstrual cycle have focused on pre-menopausal women with regular menstrual cycles, and there are very little data in peri-menopausal women.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the late follicular phase, as ovarian follicles develop and mature, estradiol is secreted in large amounts; when the estradiol concentration has exceeded a certain threshold for a certain amount of time (>200 pg.ml−1 for ~48 h [43]), it switches to exerting positive feedback on the hypothalamic-pituitary system, sensitizing the pituitary to the hypothalamic peptide gonadotrophin-releasing”
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mean cycle length decreased significantly with age, by 3.2 days from age 25 to 45 years.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] source
plaincorrelationaln = 120,000- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Hormonal contraceptives are exogenous steroid hormones that inhibit GnRH, thus suppressing the secretion of gonadotropins; during the placebo interval, the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis slowly regains activity, however, endogenous estrogen levels remain suppressed until Day 6 [50].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Women taking oral contraceptives have low endogenous hormone levels but high levels of synthetic hormones [52].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Approximately 16 h after the peak LH surge, an oocyte is released from the follicle (ovulation) and the corpus luteum then evolves from the ruptured follicle and secretes progesterone and estradiol, marking the start of the luteal phase.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, ethinyl estradiol has a high affinity for estrogen (estradiol) receptors and is more potent [52] and may be bioactive for longer [51] than the endogenous hormone.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The reduction in ovarian steroid hormones (along with reduced inhibin A concentrations) toward the end of the luteal phase leads to a reduced negative feedback mechanism on the hypothalamic-pituitary system, and there is an inter-cycle rise in FSH [42].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [42] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Estradiol (the most potent estrogen) is the main secretory product of the ovarian follicle during the early follicular phase of the cycle and, together with inhibin, is primarily responsible for inducing a negative feedback regulation on the release of the gonadotrophins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), from the pituitary [41,42].”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The human menstrual cycle, defined as the interval between the first day of bleeding of one cycle and first day of bleeding of the next cycle, typically lasts 25 to 35 days, with an average of 28 days for women in their twenties, and 26 days for women in their forties [37].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Hormonal contraceptives are exogenous steroid hormones that inhibit GnRH, thus suppressing the secretion of gonadotropins; during the placebo interval, the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis slowly regains activity, however, endogenous estrogen levels remain suppressed until Day 6 [50].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The impact of confounding factors can be somewhat lessened by following the “three-over-six” rule”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] source
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Melatonin, which increases during the night, has a hypothermic effect, contributing to the normal nocturnal decline in core body temperature [77]”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [77] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Even if basal core body temperature is measured on awakening before any activity, it is still influenced by internal (e.g. fever, sleep disturbance, change of waking time) and external (e.g. environmental temperature) factors, which can confound the measurement of a menstrual cycle effect on body temperature [43]”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Core body temperature rhythms in women in the follicular phase are most similar to those of men.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“which requires that three consecutive daily readings are higher than the six preceding daily readings, reflecting an upward trend in core body temperature [1]”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Grant, and colleagues [76] found that both the area under the curve for progesterone and for the progesterone:estrogen ratio correlated with the core body temperature area under the curve”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [76] Grant LK, 2019, Sleep
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The authors reasoned that progesterone may inhibit the nocturnal hypothermic action of melatonin in the luteal phase, reducing the nocturnal fall in core body temperature [66]”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“remaining high until the approach to menstruation, when it declines as progesterone levels decline”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“administration of melatonin provokes an increase in distal skin temperature (potentially via a direct effect on blood vessels to induce vasodilation and/or indirectly via modulation of sympathetic nervous system activity) and a decrease in core body temperature [10], as heat is shifted from the core to the shell.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Melatonin administered during the day elevated circulating melatonin levels to a similar extent in the follicular and luteal phases, and was associated with a decline in core body temperature in the follicular phase (of 0.31°C), but no associated decline in core body temperature in the luteal phase [66]”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a small study of four women in the preovulatory phase, in whom high levels of estradiol were documented, resting esophageal temperature was lower and the threshold for sweating was decreased relative to the early follicular phase [31].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] source
plaincorrelationaln = 4- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Some investigators [66–68,80] found a phase delay in the temperature rhythm (sometimes by as much as 90 min) in the luteal phase compared with the follicular phase”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“while others have found no difference [35,69,71,79]”
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Shibui and colleagues [73] investigated multiple circadian hormone and temperature rhythms in women in the follicular versus luteal phase and found a blunted amplitude of thyroid-stimulating hormone and a trend for a lower area under the melatonin curve, in addition to a blunted temperature rhythm”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [73] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Shechter et al. [83],concluded that the changes in amplitude and level of core body temperature in the luteal phase likely reflect a thermoregulatory response to progesterone rather than a change in function of the circadian system.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [83] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The well-characterized increase in spindle frequency activity in the luteal phase [86–88] may also be, in part, a result of increased core body temperature [89], although progesterone and its metabolites likely also have a direct effect on spindle generation [84].”
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas in the presence of estrogen and progesterone in the luteal phase, the curve is shifted upwards but with a blunted amplitude.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“which they suggest may be attributed to the higher body temperature since slow-wave activity is increased with elevated body temperature in the rat [85].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [84] source
- Not checked yetcites [85] Gao B, 1995, Am J Physiol
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, current evidence supports the concept that the amplitude of the circadian core body temperature rhythm is blunted in the luteal phase, but the circadian core body temperature phase is unchanged in the luteal phase compared with the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“REM sleep has a circadian variation, peaking soon after the nadir in core body temperature [90], and may be inhibited in the presence of a higher core body temperature, as it is under a thermal challenge [91]; thermoregulatory responses (e.g. sweating rate) are reduced in REM sleep [92].”
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“leading them to conclude that there is an overall change in the circadian pacemaker”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [73] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“These authors suggest that since the onset of sweating is delayed (which would be expected to be associated with an increase in skin temperature) yet cutaneous vasodilation is increased (increasing convective heat loss) during the luteal phase, the net result may be no change, or little change, in skin temperature [36].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Shechter, and colleagues (2010)[74] also found reduced REM sleep in naps during the habitual nocturnal sleep period in the luteal phase compared with the follicular phase, which they suggest may reflect the coupling between body temperature and REM sleep.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a study of cognitive performance overnight, in which neurobehavioral performance was worse in the follicular phase, Grant and colleagues [76],found a significant inverse correlation between core body temperature and attentional failures in the naturally-cycling women.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [76] Grant LK, 2019, Sleep
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Shechter and colleagues [74] argue that the delay found by Cagnacci and colleagues in the luteal phase could be a consequence of the effects of bright light on the core body temperature rhythm, since dim light conditions were not maintained across the experiment.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies have compared core body temperature rhythms in the luteal and follicular phases, but a change in body temperature also may occur around the time of ovulation, albeit a smaller change that is not always detected.”
hedgedconditionaln = 4- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 1945, Halbrecht observed that the “progestin phase” (luteal phase) was preceded by a slight but constant fall in basal core body temperature (oral or rectal) in some of the women in which body temperature was monitored [56].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [56] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Studies that have measured skin temperature for shorter time intervals either at rest or during exercise have produced mixed results for menstrual cycle effects, with some showing increased skin temperature and others no difference in the luteal relative to the follicular phase [reviewed in 36].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“distal skin temperature was out of phase with core body temperature, with minimum core body temperature recorded at a similar time (follicular: 0434 h ± 0025; luteal: 0420 h ± 0022) as maximum distal skin temperature (follicular: 0314 h ± 0057; luteal: 0423 h ± 0104) in both menstrual phases [83].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [83] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a study of women with multiple follicle development induced with FSH injections from day 8 onwards, which results in a prolonged estrogen surge, the entire 24-h core body temperature curve was shifted lower, with no change in amplitude or phase, in association with a low progesterone:estrogen ratio just before ovulation [67].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [67] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“There was no menstrual cycle phase effect on the distal-proximal skin temperature gradient, suggesting no change in internal heat conduction across the menstrual cycle [82]”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [82] source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This variability in findings could be explained by masking of the endogenous core body temperature rhythm by factors such as environmental light, activity, sleep, and posture [78,81], as well as by the application of different methods and indicators of phase.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [78] source
- Not checked yetcites [81] Czeisler CA, 1999
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Possibly, differences between study results can be explained by differences in the progestin used or ratio of progestin to estradiol.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“An increase in heart rate (3% to 5%) in the luteal phase relative to the follicular phase is evident, particularly during sleep [84,86,94], and is associated with a decrease in vagal activity [94].”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In summary, estrogen has a temperature-lowering effect that can temporarily oppose the effect of progesterone, although progesterone’s hyperthermic effect is dominant [60].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Further, studies of 24-h body temperature rhythms have shown that women taking oral contraceptives in the active phase of the contraceptive regime have body temperatures similar to those of women in the luteal phase, which are higher than those of men and women in the follicular phase [69,78,79].”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Israel and Schneller [60] found that oral administration of a progestogen alone (pregneninolone, high dose: 4 daily doses of 20 mg for a total dose of 80 mg) in ovariectomized women increased basal rectal temperature by 0.2°C to 0.3°C within 24 h in 19 of 22 trials; temperatures declined within 48 h after progestogen withdrawal.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The majority [29,108–113] but not all [114,115] studies find an increase in energy expenditure or basal metabolic rate of about 5% to 9% in the luteal phase.”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The rise in core body temperature was still evident if progestogen followed ethinyl estradiol administration, and if estradiol and progestogen were administered simultaneously (although a higher progestogen dose was required to obtain the effect) [60].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also, while a high dose of estradiol benzoate (1.5 mg) administered to women during the luteal phase lowered basal core body temperature, the effect was temporary.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies in women with natural menstrual cycles, which are observational, point strongly to the effects of progesterone and estrogen on body temperature regulation, with progesterone being responsible for the increase in core body temperature in the luteal phase.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The effects of exogenous progesterone and estrogen administration on core body temperature reflect the effects of endogenous progesterone and estrogen across the natural menstrual cycle.
In the paper
“These findings show that progestin effectively increased core body temperature; however, when estrogen was administered with progestin, the effect was reversed [107].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [107] source
plaindirectn = 8- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Progesterone’s thermogenic effect is evident even at low doses (5 mg) in men [98] (Figure 3) but higher doses are more likely to induce a consistent response [60,98].”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The thermogenic effect of progesterone is also evident in rats [100–102].”
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Overall, correlational data suggest some relationship between the rise in body temperature and sleep changes in the luteal phase, although reproductive steroids also act directly on sleep regulatory centers [93], so it is likely that both direct and indirect effects may be in play.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [93] source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the variability between studies in timing of when the women were studied during the 7-day placebo phase, oral contraceptive formulations used, and variability in the pharmacokinetics of oral contraceptives, there is likely variability in the hormonal clearance rates, and thus the duration of effect of the exogenous hormones on core body temperature.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, estrogen levels in the patients treated with human menopausal gonadotropin were also higher (more than double that of the other treatment group), and estrogen may have depressed the thermogenic action of progesterone [61].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [61] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In well-trained athletes taking oral contraceptives chronically, exercise performance in the heat did not differ over the menstrual cycle, despite the endogenous changes in core body temperature over the cycle still being present [144].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [144] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As a result, core body temperature did not rise excessively during exercise in the heat in the luteal phase, nor did their heart rate or perceived rating of exhaustion.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [142] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The second study also found that with hormone suppression, resting energy expenditure was reduced (by 3.7%) and this reduction was prevented by estrogen therapy [117].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [117] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the first study, a significant increase in resting energy expenditure in the mid-luteal phase was found compared with the early follicular phase, and a reduction in resting energy expenditure in response to GnRH agonist therapy (which suppressed progesterone and estrogen) [109].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [109] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast, Lee and colleagues [127] found that women had a higher sweating rate and skin blood flow in the luteal phase when exposed to heat.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [127] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Pivarnik and colleagues [131] reported a slightly greater increase in rectal temperature in women exercising at 22°C in the luteal compared to the follicular phase, and a perception by the women that the exercise was harder in the luteal phase [131].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [131] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Despite the change in the threshold for sweating, it has been reported that the sweating rate and pattern of sweating at various cutaneous sites do not differ across the menstrual cycle [122,125].”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For eight of the women, the increase ranged between 8% and 16%, however, two other women showed a decrease of 2%.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [113] source
plainn = 10- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Well-trained women also have smaller changes in core body temperature over the menstrual cycle, associated with reduced ovarian hormone concentrations and fluctuation over the cycle [143].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [143] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In well-trained endurance athletes exercising in moderate heat during the mid-luteal phase, the body temperature threshold for heat loss responses was lower and the sensitivity of heat loss responses was higher compared to those of untrained athletes [139].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [139] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It also had been reported previously that there were similar shifts in thermal perception, with the hand temperature at which women felt pleasant higher in the luteal phase [118] and subjects less sensitive to cold sensation in the luteal phase [119].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [118] Cunningham DJ, 1971, J de Physiologie
- Not checked yetcites [119] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In subjects taking oral contraceptives in the same study, thermoregulatory responses to exercise were more uniform across the menstrual cycle with no changes in the dynamics of the sweating response [138].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [138] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“During exercise in a hot and dry environment, body temperature also appears to increase at the same rate in both phases of the menstrual cycle, such that the core temperature difference between the luteal and follicular phases at rest is maintained during stead-state exercise [123].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [123] source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, in well-trained women exercising in the heat, exercise performance did not differ across the menstrual cycle [135] and high-intensity intermittent running in the heat was not influenced by the phase of the menstrual cycle [136].”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Administration of a progestin-only contraceptive (depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate) increased resting metabolic rate by, on average, 9% (with 9 of 13 women showing an increase) in association with an increase in body temperature (measurement not defined) 3 weeks later, which is when maximum concentration is expected [116].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [116] source
plaincorrelationaln = 13- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Together, these results support an association between sex steroid hormones and energy expenditure. Both progesterone and estrogen may contribute to this effect in the luteal phase.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Cumulative heat storage at different exercise intensities in a hot, dry environment was the same in both phases of the menstrual cycle, and there was no difference in whole body heat loss over the menstrual cycle [32].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In recreationally active females, endurance time to fatigue in hot, humid conditions [140]) and exercise tolerance time in a hot, dry environment [132] were lower in the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase.”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Female reproductive hormones affect the peripheral mechanism of vasodilation, with differences in cutaneous vasodilation across the menstrual cycle, at least in some regions of the body [125].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [125] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast, another study found that rectal temperature increased at a slightly greater rate in the follicular compared to the luteal phase in women exercising at 24°C, which the authors attributed to a greater gain for sweating in the luteal phase [138].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [138] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These results elegantly show that the excitatory effect of progesterone on warm-sensitive neurons in the POA is likely mediated by progesterone receptors induced by estrogen [156]; induction of progesterone receptors in the preoptic area takes 24–30 h [157].”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Second, intravenous injection of progesterone in rabbits inhibits the firing rate of warm-sensitive neurons and stimulates cold-sensitive neurons in the POA and anterior hypothalamus, with a short latency (6–20 min) implying a non-genomic action [154].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [154] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Fever results when cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1 β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), released from leukocytes and other cells, induce the synthesis of cyclooxygenase-2, which results in increased prostaglandin synthesis. Prostaglandin E2 acts on the hypothalamus to alter the set point for body temperature regulation, leading to an increase in heat production,”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [145] Roth J, 2018
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 and TNF mediate fever after an infection, principally through stimulation of prostaglandin synthesis, resulting in an increased set point [160].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [160] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Randomly-cycling female rats show a blunted febrile response compared to males when injected with the pyrogen lipopolysaccharide (LPS), possibly as a result of a reduced response of cytokine mediators of fever, including TNF-α and MIP-1α [146].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [146] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Progesterone has been shown to stimulate macrophages to produce IL-1 [161] and some researchers [but not all, e.g. 162] have shown that IL-1 activity [159] is increased after ovulation when progesterone is high, providing some support for the hypothesis that the rise in core body temperature in the luteal phase is similar to a fever [159].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [161] Flynn A, 1984, Lymphokine Res
- Not checked yetcites [159] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Neurons responded, on average, at 8.3 ± 6.0 min, and recovered after 30–40 min, again indicating that the inhibitory effect of progesterone is rapid, and unlikely to be genomic.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [155] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Putting these findings in the context of studies in women in the luteal phase, in whom both progesterone and estrogen are present, it seems possible that the ratio of progesterone to estrogen is critical in determining whether the inhibitory or excitatory effect of progesterone on warm-sensitive neurons in the POA is dominant.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [67] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal studies on progesterone's central thermoregulatory actions generalize to women.
In the paper
“First, as described above, in association with the rise in core body temperature in the luteal phase, there is an increase in the threshold temperatures for sweating onset, cutaneous vasodilation, thermal comfort, and cold sensations (Figure 4), which likely reflects an orchestrated thermoregulatory response from the brain.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Shifts in thermoeffector thresholds indicate a change in the regulated set point for core body temperature.
In the paper
“This effect persisted even when a progesterone receptor antagonist was applied, suggesting that it is not mediated via progesterone receptors.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [156] source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Others have reported increased prostaglandin plasma concentrations in the luteal phase [163].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [163] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“During a fever, core body temperature continues to be regulated but is actively defended at a higher level [9].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Third, Marrone and colleagues [101] showed in three animals that administration of progesterone directly into the POA increased colonic temperature by 0.5°C; four rats who received cholesterol administration as a control showed no consistent change in colonic temperature.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [101] source
plaindirectn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This excitatory effect was not evident in slices from animals not pretreated with estrogen or in slices from animals treated with estrogen only 12 h prior, and the effect was blocked when a progesterone receptor antagonist was applied together with progesterone.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [156] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Of the only four cold-sensitive neurons studied, three were inhibited by progesterone and one was activated; this sample is too small to draw any conclusions about the actions of progesterone on cold-sensitive neurons.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [155] source
plaindirectn = 4- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Treatment of ovariectomized female rats with estrogen and progesterone reduced blood levels of the cytokine IL-1β (but not IL-6) and the febrile response to LPS, compared to control ovariectomized female rats [147].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [147] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although mediators of the fever response in females and males do not differ, there is evidence, particularly from animals, that female reproductive hormones modulate the immune response and may affect the magnitude of the febrile response.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Chronic oral contraceptive use, however, attenuates the sweating response, which may impair performance if athletes are unable to pace themselves appropriately [144].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [144] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In human peripheral mononuclear cells, estrogen, and progesterone exert an inhibitory effect on IL-1 β mRNA synthesis and IL-1β release but not IL-6 secretion [148].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [148] Li ZG, Danis VA, 1993, Clin Exp Rheumatol
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given the view that fever has an upper limit [149], one would expect to see a smaller increment in core body temperature in febrile women in the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase, possibly as a result of changes in cytokine responsiveness, such that core body temperature is similar at the peak of the fever in both phases.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [149] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Following priming by estrogen, however, progesterone excites warm-sensitive neurons (via progesterone receptors), which would increase heat loss and reduce heat production.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [156] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal studies on progesterone's central thermoregulatory actions generalize to women.
In the paper
“Rutanen and colleagues [150] reported a case where the patient had recurrent fevers associated with high progesterone during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, and upregulated cytokine levels across the entire menstrual cycle.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [150] Rutanen EM, 1993, J Clin Endocrinol Metab
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Despite these and other limitations [reviewed in 64], basal body temperature measurement is simple and cheap [175] and, therefore, remains a popular way of retrospectively tracking ovulatory cycles.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [175] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“However, they suggest that basal body temperature may be of use in confirming ovulation has occurred after the fact.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“They concluded that basal core body temperature is an unreliable indicator of ovulation for three main reasons: (1) large variation in the interval between the core body temperature nadir or rise in temperature and ovulation; (2) the need for a 48-h window to confirm a basal core body temperature criterion because of a large number of false nadirs and temperature rises; (3) difficulty in interpr”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“As emphasized by Charkoudian and Stachenfeld (2014) [3] in their seminal review, estrogen can modulate progesterone-related increases in body temperature through its actions in the POA and through peripheral vasodilation effects, meaning that the balance of these hormones is likely critical for thermoregulatory control.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It has been suggested that melatonin’s hypothermic effect is centrally mediated via a reduction in the threshold for active vasodilation [166]”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [166] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Application of estradiol to isolated preoptic tissue slices from male rats causes an increase in the firing rate of warm-sensitive neurons, facilitating heat loss and reducing heat production [16] (Table 2).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [16] Silva NL, 1986, Am J Physiol
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Resting metabolic rate is determined at the cellular level by processes related to mitochondrial activity [116].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [116] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They concluded that basal core body temperature is an unreliable indicator of ovulation for three main reasons: (1) large variation in the interval between the core body temperature nadir or rise in temperature and ovulation; (2) the need for a 48-h window to confirm a basal core body temperature criterion because of a large number of false nadirs and temperature rises; (3) difficulty in interpr”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The action of these hormones on the vasomotor state in the periphery likely also feeds back to the hypothalamus to further modulate core body temperature.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“They concluded that basal core body temperature is an unreliable indicator of ovulation for three main reasons: (1) large variation in the interval between the core body temperature nadir or rise in temperature and ovulation; (2) the need for a 48-h window to confirm a basal core body temperature criterion because of a large number of false nadirs and temperature rises; (3) difficulty in interpr”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Of note, an effect of progesterone via thyroid hormone has been discounted [168].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [168] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The authors concluded that the thermoregulatory mechanism of steroid hormones is probably distinct from a classic infection-induced fever [164].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [164] source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Despite these and other limitations [reviewed in 64], basal body temperature measurement is simple and cheap [175] and, therefore, remains a popular way of retrospectively tracking ovulatory cycles.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [175] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They concluded that basal core body temperature is an unreliable indicator of ovulation for three main reasons: (1) large variation in the interval between the core body temperature nadir or rise in temperature and ovulation; (2) the need for a 48-h window to confirm a basal core body temperature criterion because of a large number of false nadirs and temperature rises; (3) difficulty in interpr”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“As described above and reviewed elsewhere [176], skin temperature is influenced by many confounding factors, including environmental temperature, sensor design, and site of measurement.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [176] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“and possibly also a shift in the vasoconstrictor system control to a lower internal temperature [167].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [167] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“There is considerable interest in this group of neurons because they are thought to be involved in triggering hot flashes in peri- and post-menopausal women: KNDy neurons are hypertrophied post-menopause after estrogen withdrawal and ablation of these neurons reduces cutaneous vasodilatation and partially blocks the effects of estrogen on thermoregulation [169].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [169] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, proper consideration of the menstrual cycle may reduce noise in experiments and aid researchers in detecting differences between treatments or groups, including in measurements of body temperature.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One study that investigated the possibility of detecting a decrease in skin temperature (measured at the wrist) before ovulation revealed that a pre-ovulatory temperature nadir was detected in only 41% of cycles, suggesting that prospective determination of ovulation with this method was not robust [177].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [177] source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“− 83.4% of the cycles were biphasic.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [184] source
plainn = 158- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We now understand that there is intricate circuitry linking the thermoregulatory and reproductive systems, with estrogen and progesterone interacting in complex ways to alter thermoregulation.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The microcircuitry of how progesterone and estrogen interact in the brain to modify central thermoregulation as well as their effects in the periphery are not well understood, and further work is needed.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“- Device-predicted probability of conception per fertile day curve closely matched that of ultrasound/LH combination.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] source
plaincorrelationaln = 21- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As outlined in Table 3, several of these devices have been investigated in preliminary studies, mostly by the company, and have shown promising results for the detection of the fertile window (encompassing ovulation) based on tracking an upward shift in temperature after ovulation.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“- Skin T with device was 0.30°C higher in LP vs FP, and correlated with waking oral T.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [180] source
plaincorrelationaln = 22- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“- Algorithm showed good performance (90% of cycles) in detecting 6-day fertile window, with specificity of 0.93 & sensitivity of 0.81.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [178] source
plainn = 193- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“- Skin T, HR and respiratory rate increased in LP.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [178] source
plaindirectn = 193- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The rise in core body temperature during the luteal phase is a cardinal signal of an ovulatory menstrual cycle that is well recognized and easy to measure.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Male bias is evident in most fields of biological research, and particularly so in the field of neuroscience, where males outnumber females at a ratio of 5.5 to 1 [186].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [186] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Applying a machine learning algorithm to data from multiple sensors (contained in a wrist bracelet) revealed good performance in detecting the 6-day fertile window, showing the promise of multi-sensor data being applied to not only retrospectively identify ovulatory cycles but potentially to predict the period when fertility is highest [178].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [178] source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“- Showed an upward shift in wrist skin T in 82% of cycles, with higher average skin T in LP than early FP.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [177] source
plaincorrelationaln = 136- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The effects of exogenous progesterone and estrogen administration on core body temperature reflect the effects of endogenous progesterone and estrogen across the natural menstrual cycle.
“These findings are supported by studies that have investigated the direct effects of exogenous hormone administration on core body temperature, to determine the separate and combined effects of progesterone and estrogen.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from animal studies on progesterone's central thermoregulatory actions generalize to women.
“There are several lines of evidence supporting a direct effect of progesterone on the preoptic area of the hypothalamus to inhibit heat loss mechanisms (i.e., raise the set point at which behavioral and autonomic thermoeffector pathways are activated) and/or increase heat production.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Shifts in thermoeffector thresholds indicate a change in the regulated set point for core body temperature.
“If core body temperature is regulated at a higher operating point during the luteal phase, one would expect to find shifts in the thresholds for heat- and cold-defense effector mechanisms across the menstrual cycle.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“This is due to the varying levels of estrogen and progesterone which cause shifts in all autonomic thermoregulatory thresholds (shivering, sweating and cutaneous vasodilation) [87].”
From Human thermal perception and time of day: A review (2021) · cites this paper as [87]
In the citing paper
“Menstrual phases modulate peripheral temperature readings60, but the lack of contraceptive or menstrual cycle phase data precluded any further analyses.”
From Diurnal rhythms of wrist temperature are associated with future disease risk in the UK Biobank (2023) · cites this paper as [60]
In the citing paper
“In comparison to the follicular phase of menstrual cycle, the core body temperature (CBT) measured in early morning is 0.3 to 0.7 °C higher in the luteal phase [ 89 , 90 ], which is attributed to the thermogenic effect of progesterone [ 91 ]”
From Physiological Rhythms and Biological Variation of Biomolecules: The Road to Personalized Laboratory Medicine (2023) · cites this paper as [89]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Methods
“Reference 154 16 155”
§ Methods
“Progesterone 72 h after estradiol data are from Tsai et al. [156].”
Citations
Cites
Sex bias in neuroscience and biomedical research
Beery, A. K., & Zucker, I. (2011) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.002 · Cited by 1,763
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Central Mechanisms for Thermoregulation
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“Indeed, under constant conditions, the circadian rhythms in heat production (measured with indirect calorimetry) and distal skin (hands and feet) temperature, reflecting heat loss, are phase-advanced relative to that of core body temperature [22].”
BackgroundCircadian rhythms, sleep, and the menstrual cycle
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Sims, S. T., Kerksick, C. M., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Janse de Jonge, X. A. K., Hirsch, K. R., Arent, S. M., Hewlings, S. J., Kleiner, S. M., Bustillo, E., Tartar, J. L., et al. (2023) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1080/15502783.2023.2204066 · Cited by 129
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Alzueta, E., & Baker, F. C. (2023) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2023.06.003 · Cited by 49
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Metadata
- Authors
- Baker, F. C., Siboza, F., & Fuller, A.
- Affiliations
- SRI International (US)
- University of the Witwatersrand (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Baker, Fiona C.
- Venue
- Temperature
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2020-03-22
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 226-262
- ISSN
- 2332-8940 (ISSN-L)
- 2332-8959
- PMC
- PMC7575238
- OpenAlex
- W3012616340
- Cited by
- 262
- References
- 188
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 72 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 2.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Temperature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (RF1AG061355)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Thermoregulation and physiological responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Critical Care and Intensive Care Medicine › Thermal Regulation in Medicine
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- core body temperature, menstrual cycle, luteal phase, follicular phase, progesterone, estrogen, thermoregulation, circadian rhythm, heat exposure, cold exposure, exercise thermoregulation, fever, oral contraceptives, wearable temperature sensors, ovulation prediction
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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