Technologies for Continuous Glucose Monitoring: Current Problems and Future Promises
Open accessAbstract
Devices for continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) are currently a major focus of research in the area of diabetes management. It is envisioned that such devices will have the ability to alert a diabetes patient (or the parent or medical care giver of a diabetes patient) of impending hypoglycemic/hyperglycemic events and thereby enable the patient to avoid extreme hypoglycemic/hyperglycemic excursions as well as minimize deviations outside the normal glucose range, thus preventing both life-threatening events and the debilitating complications associated with diabetes. It is anticipated that CGM devices will utilize constant feedback of analytical information from a glucose sensor to activate an insulin delivery pump, thereby ultimately realizing the concept of an artificial pancreas. Depending on whether the CGM device penetrates/breaks the skin and/or the sample is measured extracorporeally, these devices can be categorized as totally invasive, minimally invasive, and noninvasive. In addition, CGM devices are further classified according to the transduction mechanisms used for glucose sensing (i.e., electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric). However, at present, most of these technologies are plagued by a variety of issues that affect their accuracy and long-term performance. This article presents a critical comparison of existing CGM technologies, highlighting critical issues of device accuracy, foreign body response, calibration, and miniaturization. An outlook on future developments with an emphasis on long-term reliability and performance is also presented.
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Miniaturization of optical glucose monitoring instrumentation is not currently possible, preventing personalized continuous monitoring devices.
“Moreover, miniaturization of the instrumentation is not currently possible thus precluding personalized devices for continuous monitoring.19”
From Biocompatible Materials for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices (2013) · cites this paper as [19]
Microdialysis avoids direct sensor implantation, but in vivo glucose recovery is erratic because of the foreign body response.
“Microdialysis avoids direct implantation of a sensor but the glucose measurement (i.e., recovery) remains erratic in vivo due to the foreign body response.19,24–25”
From Biocompatible Materials for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices (2013) · cites this paper as [19]
Near-infrared spectroscopy allows 90-95% of light to pass through the stratum corneum and epidermis into subcutaneous space with minimal tissue adsorption independent of skin pigmentation.
“Optical detection of glucose via near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy enables 90–95% of the light to pass through the human stratum corneum and epidermis into subcutaneous space with minimal tissue adsorption independent of skin pigmentation.19,40–41”
From Biocompatible Materials for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices (2013) · cites this paper as [19]
Photobleaching of fluorophores and tissue scattering are significant drawbacks of optical glucose detection.
“Photobleaching of the fluorophore and scattering in tissue are significant drawbacks.19,35–36”
From Biocompatible Materials for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices (2013) · cites this paper as [19]
Most electron mediators used in second-generation glucose biosensors are toxic, and mediator-oxygen competition persists.
“Unfortunately, most mediators are toxic and competition between the mediator and oxygen still exists.19,22”
From Biocompatible Materials for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices (2013) · cites this paper as [19]
The electrode potential used to monitor hydrogen peroxide also oxidizes endogenous electroactive species and produces high current densities.
“Additionally, the working electrode potential required to monitor hydrogen peroxide (i.e., ~+0.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl) will also oxidize electroactive endogenous species (e.g., ascorbic acid and acetaminophen) and create high current densities.19”
From Biocompatible Materials for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices (2013) · cites this paper as [19]
Low oxygen concentrations cause problems with biosensor response to glucose, particularly dynamic range, due to stoichiometric imbalance between oxygen and glucose.
“Indeed, low concentrations of oxygen lead to problems with the biosensor response to glucose (particularly dynamic range) due to stoichiometric imbalance between the two cofactors.19,63”
From Biocompatible Materials for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices (2013) · cites this paper as [19]
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- Authors
- Vaddiraju, S., Burgess, D. J., Tomazos, I., Jain, F. C., & Papadimitrakopoulos, F.
- Affiliations
- University of Connecticut (US)
- Corresponding author
- Papadimitrakopoulos, Fotios
- Venue
- Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2010-11
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1540-1562
- ISSN
- 1932-2968 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3005068
- OpenAlex
- W2161313513
- Cited by
- 285
- References
- 181
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 12.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (1-R21-HL090458-01, R21HL090458)
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (ES013557, R01ES013557)
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (R43EB011886)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electrochemical sensors and biosensors
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Pancreatic function and diabetes
- Keywords
- continuous glucose monitoring, diabetes management, artificial pancreas, glucose sensor, hypoglycemia detection, hyperglycemia, non-invasive glucose monitoring, electrochemical glucose sensor, optical glucose sensor, piezoelectric sensors, foreign body reaction, sensor calibration, device miniaturization, sensor accuracy, long-term reliability
- MeSH terms
- Blood Glucose, Diabetes Mellitus, Equipment Design, Forecasting, Humans, Insulin Infusion Systems, Miniaturization, Predictive Value of Tests, Signal Processing, Computer-Assisted, Time Factors, Reproducibility of Results, Biomarkers, Monitoring, Ambulatory
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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