Voltage Regulation in Rooftop PV-Rich Distribution Networks: A Review and Detailed Case Study

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

More recent contributions have highlighted the need to model neutral and ground explicitly in multi-grounded four-wire systems to correctly capture neutral currents, neutral-to-ground voltages and associated safety margins.

“More recent contributions have highlighted the need to model neutral and ground explicitly, particularly in multi-grounded four-wire systems, to correctly capture neutral currents, neutral-to-ground voltages and associated safety margins [8][9][10][11].”

• cites [8] Alam, 2015, Community Energy Storage for Neutral Voltage Rise Mitigation in Four-Wire Multigrounded LV Feeders with Unbalanced Solar PV Allocation, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [9] Ciric, 2003, Power flow in four-wire distribution networks—General approach, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceCould not verify

  The available copy shows the paper’s title and bibliographic metadata, but no substantive passage addressing explicit neutral-and-ground modeling, multi-grounding, neutral currents, neutral-to-ground voltages, or safety margins. Searches for those terms returned only the title and metadata, so the attributed claim cannot be verified from our copy. (LLM, conf=0.70)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [10] Rahman, O., Muttaqi, K.M., and Sutanto, D. (2018). Three Phase Power Flow Analysis of Distribution Network Performance with High Penetration of Single Phase PV units Integrated with Energy Storage System. 2018 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC), 27–30 November 2018, IEEE. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [11] Rahman, O., Muttaqi, K.M., and Sutanto, D. (2019). Time Series Variations of the Neutral-to-Ground Potential in a 4-Wire LV Network under Unbalanced Allocation of Rooftop Solar PV and Mitigation using Energy Storage. 2019 IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting (PESGM), 4–8 August 2019, IEEE. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Another study investigated harmonic PQ impacts on PV inverters with AFIC signalling, highlighting the requirement of filtering the AFIC signal to protect the inverters.

“Another study investigated the harmonic PQ impacts on PV inverters with AFIC signalling, highlighting the requirement of filtering the AFIC signal to protect the inverters [47].”

• cites [47] David, J., Elphick, S., Ciufo, P., and Perera, S. (2018). The impact of PV inverters on audio frequency injection load control signals. 2018 18th International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power (ICHQP), 13–16 May 2018, IEEE. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction and Field Measurements sections (pages not provided) support that the study investigated interactions between PV inverters and AFIC signals, including changes in harmonic voltage levels. The Conclusion attributes those interactions primarily to inverter-filter impedance. The paper does not establish a requirement to filter AFIC signals to protect inverters; its Future Work section says whether the interactions harm equipment remains to be investigated. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

OLTCs and voltage regulators, coordinated control of smart PV inverters, capacitor banks, distribution-level energy storage and STATCOMs have been proposed to address voltage and power-quality issues in PV-rich LV networks.

“These include on-load tap-changing transformers (OLTCs) and voltage regulators, coordinated control of smart PV inverters, capacitor banks, distribution-level energy storage and flexible AC transmission devices such as static synchronous compensators (STATCOMs) [5,8,12,13].”

• cites [5] Gholami, 2022, State-of-the-art technologies for volt-var control to support the penetration of renewable energy into the smart distribution grids, Energy Rep. sourcePartly supported

  Sections 2.2–2.3 and 3.1 describe OLTCs, voltage regulators, coordinated PV-inverter control, capacitor banks, and energy storage for voltage control in distribution grids. Section 4 names DSTATCOMs only as devices whose potential in volt-var schemes should be investigated. The paper does not establish the full list as proposed solutions specifically for PV-rich low-voltage networks or for power-quality issues. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [8] Alam, 2015, Community Energy Storage for Neutral Voltage Rise Mitigation in Four-Wire Multigrounded LV Feeders with Unbalanced Solar PV Allocation, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [12] Rahman, O., Robinson, D., and Elphick, S. (2025). Mitigation of Solar PV Impact in Four-Wire LV Radial Distribution Feeders Through Reactive Power Management Using STATCOMs. Electronics, 14. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction identifies OLTCs, line voltage regulators and capacitor banks as traditional voltage-regulation devices, discusses proposed battery storage, and presents STATCOMs as an LV voltage-control option. Section 3.1 also mentions Volt-VAr strategies in PV inverters, but our copy does not identify coordinated control of smart PV inverters as a proposed approach. The paper cautions that the traditional devices are often unable to keep PV-rich LV networks within voltage limits. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [13] Rahman, O., Robinson, D.A., Elphick, S., and Perera, S. (2021). Dual-Objective MPC of Community Energy Storage in LV Distribution Feeders with Rooftop Solar PV. 2021 IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies—Asia (ISGT Asia), 5–8 December 2021, IEEE. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Subsequent studies extended PV impact analysis to more realistic unbalanced three-phase models, but explicit representation of neutral conductors was often neglected.

“Subsequent studies extended this to more realistic unbalanced three-phase models; however, explicit representation of neutral conductors was often neglected [9].”

• cites [9] Ciric, 2003, Power flow in four-wire distribution networks—General approach, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceCould not verify

  The available passages identify a paper on four-wire distribution networks but do not discuss PV impact studies or whether unbalanced three-phase models often neglected neutral conductors. Searches for neutral conductors and unbalanced three-phase power flow returned only metadata, so our copy does not establish the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.70)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

A study of 18 distribution feeders confirmed that inverter control is successful in maintaining distribution network voltage levels and can increase feeder hosting capacity.

“Reference [40] investigates the use of smart inverter functions for 18 distribution feeders.Not only does the study confirm that inverter control is successful in maintaining distribution network voltage levels, but it also discusses how these advanced settings also have the capability to increase the hosting capacity of feeder.”

• cites [40] Palmintier, B., Broderick, R., Mather, B., Coddington, M., Baker, K., Ding, F., Reno, M., Lave, M., and Bharatkumar, A. (2016). On the Path to SunShot: Emerging Issues and Challenges in Integrating Solar with the Distribution System. sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Fixed rules for ES control cannot anticipate future changes in load or PV generation and offer only a limited scope to enforce operating limits such as state-of-charge and inverter ratings.

“Fixed rules, such as charging when the voltage exceeds a threshold or discharging when it falls below another, cannot anticipate future changes in load or PV generation and offer only a limited scope to enforce operating limits such as state-of-charge and inverter ratings [84].”

• cites [84] Banfield, 2020, Comparison of economic model predictive control and rule-based control for residential energy storage systems, IET Smart Grid sourcePartly supported

  Section 5.3 describes the rule-based controller as conditional charging and discharging based on current excess PV or household load, while Section 5.1 says the EMPC predicts future PV generation and load. Section 3.3.3 specifies state-of-charge and charging-power limits for EMPC, but the copy does not establish that fixed rules have only limited ability to enforce such limits. It also does not describe the cited rule-based controller as using voltage thresholds or discuss inverter ratings in this comparison. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Australia is a global leader in residential rooftop PV deployment, with more than 3 million small-scale PV systems installed, among the highest per capita rooftop PV penetration worldwide.

“Australia is now a global leader in residential rooftop PV deployment, with more than 3 million small-scale PV systems installed, among the highest per capita rooftop PV penetration worldwide [1][2][3].”

• cites [1] Dodd, 2022, Australian household adoption of solar photovoltaics: A comparative study of hardship and non-hardship customers, Energy Policy sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction reports that household PV penetration in Australia was around 33%, and the Method describes it as high. These passages support high residential uptake, but our copy does not state that more than 3 million systems were installed or compare Australia's per-capita penetration with other countries. No page numbers are available in the indexed passages. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [2] Fuentes, 2024, Solar energy surge: The socio-economic determinants of the photovoltaic systems growth in Australia, Energy Res. Soc. Sci. sourceSupported
• cites [3] Mwampashi, 2022, Large-scale and rooftop solar generation in the NEM: A tale of two renewables strategies, Energy Econ. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Off-load tap changers need manual intervention (labour and outages) and may not be practically feasible in distribution networks with bidirectional power flow where both undervoltage and overvoltage conditions may be induced as PV penetration increases.

“However, off-load tap changers need manual intervention (labour and outages), and this approach may not be practically feasible in distribution networks with bidirectional power flow where both undervoltage and overvoltage conditions may be induced as PV penetration increases [34].”

• cites [34] Ciocia, A., Chicco, G., and Spertino, F. (2020). Benefits of On-Load Tap Changers Coordinated Operation for Voltage Control in Low Voltage Grids with High Photovoltaic Penetration. 2020 International Conference on Smart Energy Systems and Technologies (SEST), 7–9 September 2020, IEEE. sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Midday voltage rise, component overloading and voltage unbalance have been reported as major areas of concern as more PV systems are connected in distribution networks.

“In the literature [20][21][22], midday voltage rise, component overloading and voltage unbalance have been reported as the major areas of concern as more PV systems are connected in distribution networks.”

• cites [20] Canova, 2009, Electrical Impact of Photovoltaic Plant in Distributed Network, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. sourcePartly supported

  The Problem Description describes voltage rising when PV generation exceeds demand, for example at noon on a summer day. The Results also compare generated current with cable capacity, but do not report component overloading; the passages do not identify voltage unbalance as a concern. Thus the source supports the midday voltage-rise concern, not the full list. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [21] Thomson, 2007, Network Power-Flow Analysis for a High Penetration of Distributed Generation, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [22] Walling, 2008, Summary of Distributed Resources Impact on Power Delivery Systems, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

High penetration of single-phase rooftop PV on LV feeders can lead to voltage rise, increased phase unbalance, neutral-to-ground voltage issues, and reverse power flows, particularly in lightly loaded residential networks.

“High penetration of single-phase rooftop PV on low voltage (LV) feeders can lead to voltage rise, increased phase unbalance, neutral-to-ground voltage issues, and reverse power flows, particularly in lightly loaded residential networks [5][6][7].”

• cites [5] Gholami, 2022, State-of-the-art technologies for volt-var control to support the penetration of renewable energy into the smart distribution grids, Energy Rep. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) links renewable generation to overvoltage, and §3.1 (page unavailable) describes overvoltage at peak PV output and voltage-unbalance mitigation using PV inverters. The cited paper does not establish the full combination claimed: single-phase rooftop PV on lightly loaded residential LV feeders causing increased phase unbalance, neutral-to-ground voltage issues, and reverse power flows. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [6] Haque, 2016, A review of high PV penetrations in LV distribution networks: Present status, impacts and mitigation measures, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [7] Protopapadaki, 2017, Heat pump and PV impact on residential low-voltage distribution grids as a function of building and district properties, Appl. Energy sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction identifies voltage rise, reverse power flow, and voltage unbalance as potential PV-related effects, and the building-model description says the buildings have single-phase connections. The copy does not identify neutral-to-ground voltage issues or establish that these effects are particularly pronounced in lightly loaded residential networks. The Conclusion also qualifies the paper’s own results: PV did not cause over-voltage under the studied conditions. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

MPC for ES control enables multiple objectives and constraints to be handled explicitly and allows the ES schedule to be tailored to improve voltage profiles, reduce losses, and respect both device and network limits.

“This enables multiple objectives and constraints to be handled explicitly and allows the ES schedule to be tailored to improve voltage profiles, reduce losses, and respect both device and network limits [86][87][88][89].”

• cites [86] Carli, 2020, Energy scheduling of a smart microgrid with shared photovoltaic panels and storage: The case of the Ballen marina in Samsø, Energy sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s MPC energy-scheduling passage (section and page unavailable in our copy) describes optimizing battery charging, controllable loads, and grid exchange to increase solar self-supply or reduce energy costs. It supports explicit scheduling objectives, but the available passages do not address improved voltage profiles, reduced network losses, or network limits. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [87] Lv, 2019, Model predictive control based robust scheduling of community integrated energy system with operational flexibility, Appl. Energy sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [88] Pezeshki, H., Wolfs, P., and Ledwich, G. (2014). A model predictive approach for community battery energy storage system optimization. 2014 IEEE PES General Meeting|Conference & Exposition, 27–31 July 2014, IEEE. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [89] Pippia, 2020, A Single-Level Rule-Based Model Predictive Control Approach for Energy Management of Grid-Connected Microgrids, IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Advanced power-electronic and superconducting solutions have been investigated to support grids with high renewable penetration.

“while other work has investigated advanced power-electronic and superconducting solutions to support grids with high renewable penetration [12,14].”

• cites [12] Rahman, O., Robinson, D., and Elphick, S. (2025). Mitigation of Solar PV Impact in Four-Wire LV Radial Distribution Feeders Through Reactive Power Management Using STATCOMs. Electronics, 14. sourceSupported
• cites [14] Rahman, 2019, High Temperature Superconducting Devices and Renewable Energy Resources in Future Power Grids: A Case Study, IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The backward-forward sweep algorithm performs very well in radial distribution feeders with relatively high R/X ratios, but it is not generally suitable for meshed network topologies.

“The backward-forward sweep algorithm [9] is known to perform very well in radial distribution feeders with relatively high R/X ratios, but it is not generally suitable for meshed network topologies.”

• cites [9] Ciric, 2003, Power flow in four-wire distribution networks—General approach, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceCould not verify

  The available passages contain bibliographic material (labeled Abstract, no page number), not a discussion of the algorithm’s performance or topology limits. Searches for backward-forward sweep, high R/X ratios, and radial versus meshed networks found no passage that addresses the claim. (LLM, conf=0.68)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Probabilistic hosting capacity assessment methods and probabilistic load flow tools have been introduced to quantify the impact of high PV penetration on voltage profiles in large sets of realistic LV networks.

“In parallel, probabilistic hosting capacity assessment methods and probabilistic load flow tools have been introduced to quantify the impact of high PV penetration on voltage profiles in large sets of realistic LV networks [95,96].”

• cites [95] Qammar, 2024, Probabilistic hosting capacity assessment towards efficient PV-rich low-voltage distribution networks, Electr. Power Syst. Res. sourcePartly supported

  The indexed title and keywords identify this as a study of probabilistic hosting capacity in PV-rich low-voltage networks, with Monte Carlo simulations. The available passages are bibliographic material rather than the study text; they do not establish the use of probabilistic load-flow tools or an assessment of voltage profiles across large sets of realistic networks. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [96] Wohlfart, 2024, Probabilistic load flow analysis for evaluation of photovoltaic grid connection applications, Elektrotech. Inftech. sourcePartly supported

  Section 2, “Hosting capacity of distribution grids” (p. 469), identifies probabilistic assessment as a method for PV hosting capacity in LV grids and voltage violations as a key constraint. Section 5 describes probabilistic load flow for assessing overvoltage, but its reference to more than 24,000 Austrian LV feeders concerns a separate feeder-classification study. The paper does not establish that probabilistic tools quantified voltage profiles across a large set of realistic LV networks. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Under the considered high penetration level, the feeder experiences increased phase voltages during midday PV generation, elevated voltage unbalance in biased allocation scenarios and noticeable neutral-to-ground (N-G) voltage magnitudes when higher grounding resistance is assumed.

“Under the considered high penetration level, the feeder experiences increased phase voltages during midday PV generation, elevated voltage unbalance in biased allocation scenarios and noticeable neutral-to-ground (N-G) voltage magnitudes when higher grounding resistance is assumed.”

May combine two claims.

In 2019, only 23% of the sites recorded maximum voltage during the day, whereas in 2017, 60% of the sites recorded their maximum voltage during the day.

“The overall trend is apparent here, as in 2019, only 23% of the sites recorded maximum voltage during the day, whereas in 2017, 60% of the sites recorded their maximum voltage during the day.”

May combine two claims.

The results also showed significant changes in line losses, neutral-to-ground potentials, and OLTC operation, including an approximately four-fold increase in daily tap-change counts when rooftop PV is present.

“The results also showed significant changes in line losses, neutral-to-ground potentials, and OLTC operation, including an approximately four-fold increase in daily tap-change counts when rooftop PV is present.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Distribution network studies often neglect the detailed network modelling of the LV feeder, leading to errors or non-indicative results.

“It was also found that distribution network studies often neglect the detailed network modelling of the LV feeder, leading to errors or non-indicative results, which will be addressed in this paper.”

May combine two claims.

As the PV production increases, the loads can be supplied locally, and hence the line losses decrease as power is not required to be carried by the feeder conductor.

“As the PV production increases, the loads can be supplied locally, and hence it can be seen that the line losses decrease as power is not required to be carried by the feeder conductor.”

May combine two claims.

In phase A, the highest line-to-neutral voltage recorded was 262.1 V, which exceeds the Australian upper limit of 253 V, and during peak load, the voltage decreased to 209.3 V.

“In phase A, the highest line-to-neutral voltage recorded was 262.1 V (which exceeds the Australian upper limit of 253 V) and during peak load, the voltage decreased to 209.3 V.”

May combine two claims.

During maximum reverse power flow at midday, the feeder must carry the excess power from the households to the upstream MV network, and hence the line losses increase.

“However, during maximum reverse power flow at midday, the feeder must carry the excess power from the households to the upstream MV network, and hence the line losses increase as seen from the orange plot.”

May combine two claims.

The maximum voltage observed is 259.2 V for maximum PV production and the voltage decreased to 212.1 V during the maximum evening load.

“The maximum voltage observed is 259.2V for maximum PV production and the voltage decreased to 212.1 V during the maximum evening load.”

May combine two claims.

For an almost solidly grounded neutral design, the N-G voltage does not exceed 0.2 V, which is well below the maximum allowable N-G threshold for most sensitive equipment.

“For an almost solidly grounded neutral design, the N-G voltage does not exceed 0.2 V, which is well below the maximum allowable N-G threshold for most sensitive equipment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent research on voltage regulation in PV-rich LV distribution networks has increasingly focused on coordinated and data-driven control strategies.

“In recent years, research on voltage regulation in PV-rich LV distribution networks has increasingly focused on coordinated and data-driven control strategies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Most modern voltage regulation techniques found in the literature do not fully consider the limitations of practical distribution networks (e.g., communication constraints) and the relevant standards for DNSPs.

“Most of the modern voltage regulation techniques found in the literature also do not fully consider the limitations of practical distribution networks (e.g., communication constraints) and the relevant standards for DNSPs, which are discussed in the context of the present study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The main thrust of distribution network studies concentrates on control and the internal operation of related devices through power electronics.

“The main thrust of distribution network studies concentrates on control and the internal operation of related devices through power electronics.”

May combine two claims.

During midday, the VUF with PV increased to around 1%, which was lower than the VUF obtained without any rooftop PV units installed.

“During midday, the VUF with PV increased to around 1%, which was lower than the VUF obtained without any rooftop PV units installed.”

May combine two claims.

For the 24 h case study presented, the total energy lost from line losses without PV was 203 kWh, and with PV it was 132 kWh.

“For the 24 h case study presented, the total energy lost from line losses without PV was 203 kWh, and with PV it was 132 kWh.”

May combine two claims.

This results in a total voltage deviation of 52.8 V, in excess of the range of 37 V.

“This results in a total voltage deviation of 52.8 V (in excess of the range of 37 V).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In many distribution studies, MV and LV line sections are represented by a 3 × 3 phase admittance matrix, where the diagonal elements contain the self-admittances and the off-diagonal elements represent mutual coupling between phases.

“In many distribution studies, MV and LV line sections are represented by a 3 × 3 phase admittance matrix, where the diagonal elements contain the self-admittances and the off-diagonal elements represent mutual coupling between phases.”

May combine two claims.

PV systems do not reduce the overall peak power in the feeder, as PV generation is not present during the evening when peak loads are most common.

“The plot in Figure 13 also demonstrates that PV systems do not reduce the overall peak power in the feeder, as PV generation is not present during the evening when peak loads are most common.”

May combine two claims.

Both the overvoltage and undervoltage conditions are worse in phase A compared to phases B and C.

“Since both the load and PV production is highest in phase A, it is expected that both the overvoltage and undervoltage conditions will be worse in phase A compared to phases B and C; this is reflected in the graphic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Integration of DNSP-owned community BESSs can maximize the hosting capacity of the feeder while ensuring voltage levels are maintained.

“In [57], integration of DNSPowned community BESSs was applied to maximize the hosting capacity of the feeder while ensuring the voltage levels were maintained.”

• cites [57] Jayasekara, 2016, Optimal Operation of Distributed Energy Storage Systems to Improve Distribution Network Load and Generation Hosting Capability, IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A CES can be applied in an LV feeder to mitigate a neutral potential rise issue and provide voltage support for the distribution network.

“In reference [8], a CES is applied in an LV feeder to mitigate a neutral potential rise issue and provide voltage support for the distribution network.”

• cites [8] Alam, 2015, Community Energy Storage for Neutral Voltage Rise Mitigation in Four-Wire Multigrounded LV Feeders with Unbalanced Solar PV Allocation, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Large-scale application of CVR is still not economically feasible because many distribution networks are not equipped with smart metering technology.

“Large-scale application of this technique is still not an economically feasible option as many distribution networks are not equipped with smart metering technology.”

May combine two claims.

If Volt-Watt is activated, customers towards the end of the feeder experience more active power curtailment than customers connected near the distribution transformer, introducing inequity between individual PV systems.

“For example, if Volt-Watt is activated, the customers towards the end of the feeder will experience more active power curtailment than customers connected near the distribution transformer, introducing inequity between the individual PV systems.”

• cites [42] ARENA (2020). The Role of Decentralised Control for Managing Network Constraints for DER on Regional, Rural, and Remote Networks Dynamic Limits.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

STATCOMs have the capability to improve the transient stability of the system when the system experiences disturbances.

“During their operation, STATCOMs also have the capability to improve the transient stability of the system when the system experiences disturbances [71].”

• cites [71] Hingorani, N., and Gyugyi, L. (2009). Static Shunt Compensators: SVC and STATCOM. Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems, IEEE.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Switched capacitors cannot decrease voltage and are not a viable option to mitigate overvoltage problems with varying load patterns.

“Although switched capacitors can regulate the amount of reactive power injected in discrete steps, it is not a viable option to mitigate overvoltage problems with varying load patterns as these devices do not have the capability to decrease the voltage.”

May combine two claims.

Additional tap changes in OLTCs when operated in a PV-rich distribution network decrease the lifetime and increase the maintenance cost of the device.

“Furthermore, the additional tap changes in OLTCs when operated in a PV-rich distribution network also decrease the lifetime and increase the maintenance cost of the device, as discussed in reference [33].”

• cites [33] Gan, 2017, Impact of the photovoltaic system variability on transformer tap changer operations in distribution networks, CIRED—Open Access Proc. J. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

IEEE 1547 (2018 version) and Australian Standard 4777.2:2020 mandate local voltage regulation through the operation of inverter power quality response modes.

“For example, IEEE 1547 (2018 version) [37] and Australian Standard 4777.2:2020[36] mandate local voltage regulation through the operation of inverter power quality response modes.”

• cites [37] (2018). IEEE Standard for Interconnection and Interoperability of Distributed Energy Resources with Associated Electric Power Systems Interfaces. Revision of IEEE Std 1547–2003 (Standard No. IEEE Std 1547–2018).Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [36] (2017). Grid Connection of Energy Systems via Inverters (Standard No. AS/NZS 4777.2: 2015).Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

OLTCs have a slow response time (at least 1 min before operation), so tap changes may not be adequate to compensate for voltage variations caused by PV power intermittency.

“However, due to their slow response time (at least 1 min before operation), the tap changes may not be adequate to compensate for voltage variations caused by the intermittency of PV power.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

CVR was implemented through tap operation of OLTCs controlled by trigger responses from smart inverters.

“CVR was implemented through the tap operation of OLTCs controlled by trigger responses from smart inverters.”

• cites [44] United Energy (2020). Demand Response—Final Project Performance Report, United Energy.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

SAE J122 is the most popular among the charging standards used commercially that can support the three levels of plug-in EV charging.

“Currently, SAE J122 is the most popular among the charging standards used commercially that can support the three levels of plug-in EV charging [59].”

• cites [59] Bohn, T., and Chaudhry, H. (2012). Overview of SAE standards for plug-in electric vehicle. 2012 IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies (ISGT), 16–20 January 2012, IEEE. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

LVRs are quite expensive and may not be economically feasible for low density LV feeders, but would be effective to mitigate voltage issues in long feeders with a large difference in voltage between the start and end of the feeder.

“LVRs are quite expensive and may not be economically feasible for low density LV feeders; however, they would be effective to mitigate voltage issues in long feeders with a large difference in voltage between the start and end of the feeder.”

May combine two claims.

A majority of vehicles are travelling for only a small amount of time during most days, with the vehicles remaining parked either at home or a workplace for a much larger portion of time.

“According to the driving behaviour data provided in reference [64], a majority of vehicles are travelling for only a small amount of time during most days, with the vehicles remaining parked either at home or a workplace for a much larger portion of time.”

• cites [64] Wu, 2011, Electric Energy and Power Consumption by Light-Duty Plug-in Electric Vehicles, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In many conventional distribution network studies, the LV neutral conductor is not modelled explicitly; its effect is absorbed into the phase impedance matrix using Kron reduction or the neutral is assumed solidly grounded and omitted.

“In many conventional distribution network studies, the LV neutral conductor is not modelled explicitly.Instead, its effect is absorbed into the phase impedance matrix using Kron reduction [26], or the neutral is assumed to be solidly grounded and therefore omitted from the network model.”

• cites [26] 2001, Analysis of multi-grounded four-wire distribution systems considering the neutral grounding, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An increase of 10% in EV numbers has the potential to increase the peak load by 18% due to residential Level 1 AC uncontrolled charging.

“In reference [63], a simulation-based study concluded that an increase of 10% in EV numbers has the potential to increase the peak load by 18% due to residential Level 1 AC uncontrolled charging.”

• cites [63] Putrus, G.A., Suwanapingkarl, P., Johnston, D., Bentley, E.C., and Narayana, M. (2009). Impact of electric vehicles on power distribution networks. 2009 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, 7–10 September 2009, IEEE. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Compared to customer-owned BESS, CES provides freedom for the DNSP to utilize the storage device as required by the distribution network.

“Compared to customer-owned BESS, CES provides freedom for the DNSP to utilize the storage device as required by the distribution network.”

May combine two claims.

Elevated neutral-to-ground potentials can appear as a noise source for sensitive electronic equipment and may lead to maloperation of devices requiring a clean sinusoidal supply.

“Elevated N-G potentials can appear as a noise source for sensitive electronic equipment and may lead to maloperation of devices that require a clean sinusoidal supply.”

May combine two claims.

High penetration of single-phase PV injection in a three-phase system can cause local PV generation to exceed load demand and introduce reverse power flow.

“However, with a high penetration of single-phase PV injection in the three-phase system, the power generated from local PV generators may exceed the load demand, which in turn may introduce issues such as reverse power flow in the network.”

May combine two claims.

Extra reactive power in the network results in higher apparent power flow in the feeder, increasing losses and utilization of network assets.

“In addition, the extra reactive power in the network, while fundamental to the ability to mitigate voltage, results in higher apparent power flow in the feeder, increasing the losses and utilization of the network assets [41].”

• cites [41] Procopiou, A., Petrou, K., and Ochoa, L. (2025, November 12). Deliverable 3 “Traditional Solutions”, Available online: https://arena.gov.au/assets/2019/02/advanced-planning-of-pv-rich-distribution-networks-deliverable-3-traditional-solutions.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The study in [31] considered grounding resistances of approximately 5 Ω and used a 0.5 V N-G voltage limit as the common-mode threshold for sensitive equipment [32], showing that unbalanced PV connection patterns can drive N-G voltages above this level.

“The study considered grounding resistances of approximately 5 Ω and used a 0.5 V N-G voltage limit as the common-mode threshold for sensitive equipment [32], showing that unbalanced PV connection patterns can drive N-G voltages above this level.”

• cites [31] Alam, 2013, A Three-Phase Power Flow Approach for Integrated 3-Wire MV and 4-Wire Multigrounded LV Networks with Rooftop Solar PV, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [32] Gruzs, 1990, A survey of neutral currents in three-phase computer power systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A simulation study on a Hawaiian distribution network concluded that both Volt-Watt and Volt-VAr controls can regulate voltage in both urban and rural distribution networks.

“The simulation study performed on a Hawaiian distribution network [39] concludes that both Volt-Watt and Volt-VAr controls can regulate the voltage in both urban and rural distribution networks.”

• cites [39] Giraldez, J., Hoke, A., Gotseff, P., Wunder, N., Blonsky, M., Emmanuel, M., Latif, A., Ifuku, E., Asano, M., and Aukai, T. (2018). Advanced Inverter Voltage Controls: Simulation and Field Pilot Findings.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Only a fraction of new PV installations are properly audited and they are often found not to be compliant with the required grid standard.

“In reference [42], it is shown that only a fraction of new PV installations are properly audited and they are often found not be compliant with the required grid standard.”

• cites [42] ARENA (2020). The Role of Decentralised Control for Managing Network Constraints for DER on Regional, Rural, and Remote Networks Dynamic Limits.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

With effective control, batteries can alleviate voltage variations by storing excess energy when generation exceeds load and utilizing stored energy to reduce peak load.

“With effective control, batteries can alleviate voltage variations by storing excess energy when generation exceeds load and utilizing stored energy to reduce peak load [50].”

• cites [50] Olivares, 2014, Trends in Microgrid Control, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

At the time of writing, 29% of South Australian and 28% of Queensland residential customers already have a rooftop solar PV system installed.

“At the time of writing, Australia has one of the highest penetrations of solar PV installations across the world, with 29% of South Australian and 28% of Queensland residential customers already having a rooftop solar PV system installed [16].”

• cites [16] REN21 (2018). Renewables 2018 Global Status Report, REN21.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The amount of parked time is even greater if there is a second car within a household.

“The amount of parked time is even greater if there is a second car within a household.”

• cites [64] Wu, 2011, Electric Energy and Power Consumption by Light-Duty Plug-in Electric Vehicles, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Voltage regulation issues are observed mainly in non-urban radial structured residential overhead conditions, and in most of these network structures multiple transformers are often not available to reconfigure the network.

“However, voltage regulation issues will be observed mainly in non-urban radial structured residential overhead conditions, and in most of these network structures, multiple transformers are often not available to reconfigure the network.”

• cites [35] Badran, 2017, Optimal reconfiguration of distribution system connected with distributed generations: A review of different methodologies, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

From the customer's perspective, OTS BESS can bring significant benefits by greatly reducing power imported from the grid.

“From the customer's perspective, the OTS BESS can bring significant benefits, as the power imported from the grid is greatly reduced.”

May combine two claims.

Traditional three-phase power-flow tools that neglect an explicit neutral conductor cannot accurately capture the operation and grounding behaviour of four-wire MEN LV feeders and are not well suited for detailed LV analysis.

“As a result, traditional three-phase power-flow tools that neglect an explicit neutral conductor cannot accurately capture the operation and grounding behaviour of four-wire MEN LV feeders and are therefore not well suited for detailed LV analysis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

An integrated three-wire/four-wire modelling approach for assessing N-G voltages in multi-grounded LV networks was proposed in reference [31], where the influence of LV neutral behaviour on the upstream network was also examined.

“An integrated three-wire/four-wire modelling approach for assessing N-G voltages in multi-grounded LV networks was proposed in reference [31], where the influence of LV neutral behaviour on the upstream network was also examined.”

• cites [31] Alam, 2013, A Three-Phase Power Flow Approach for Integrated 3-Wire MV and 4-Wire Multigrounded LV Networks with Rooftop Solar PV, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Other work has investigated integrated three-wire/four-wire approaches for multi-grounded LV networks and highlighted how neutral grounding resistance and unbalanced loading can drive N-G voltages above common mode limits for sensitive equipment.

“Other work has investigated integrated three-wire/four-wire approaches for multi-grounded LV networks and highlighted how neutral grounding resistance and unbalanced loading can drive N-G voltages above common mode limits for sensitive equipment [31,32].”

• cites [31] Alam, 2013, A Three-Phase Power Flow Approach for Integrated 3-Wire MV and 4-Wire Multigrounded LV Networks with Rooftop Solar PV, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [32] Gruzs, 1990, A survey of neutral currents in three-phase computer power systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Large neutral currents arising from phase unbalance can create safety concerns and may adversely affect overall network performance, including overloading of the neutral conductor, electromagnetic interference, reduced protection sensitivity and increased neutral-to-ground voltage.

“Large neutral currents arising from phase unbalance can create safety concerns for people and animals and may adversely affect overall network performance.Potential impacts include overloading of the neutral conductor, electromagnetic interference with nearby communication systems, reduced sensitivity of protection devices and an increase in neutral-to-ground (N-G) voltage.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

With the price of ES/BESS decreasing, they have the potential to dominate the future power industry along with PV systems.

“With the price of ES devices or battery energy storage systems (BESS) decreasing, they have the potential to dominate the future power industry along with PV systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The main advantage of AFIC DR is that it does not require additional communication infrastructure.

“The main advantage of the AFIC DR method is that it does not require additional communication infrastructure.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

CES is a viable option for the DNSP to invest in as a distribution network support device.

“This makes CES a viable option for the DNSP to invest in as a distribution network support device.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

AFIC signalling is implemented by injecting high-frequency voltage signals onto the 50 Hz supply, which can be detected by relays, allowing certain loads to be controlled remotely.

“AFIC signalling is implemented by injecting high-frequency voltage signals onto the 50 Hz supply, which can be detected by relays, allowing certain loads to be controlled remotely.”

• cites [45] Rahman, O., Elphick, S., Muttaqi, K.M., and David, J. (2018). Investigation of LED Lighting Performance in the Presence of Ripple Injection Load Control Signals. 2018 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting (IAS), 23–27 September 2018, IEEE. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Q(V) is the most implemented inverter control function.

“Among the above-discussed modes, Q(V) is the most implemented inverter control function.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

STATCOMs can be optimally placed at a specific location in the LV feeder where line losses can also be reduced.

“Furthermore, the device can be optimally placed at a specific location in the LV feeder where the line losses can also be reduced.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

LVRs have the capability to both increase and decrease the voltage of LV feeders and are designed with bidirectional capabilities.

“LVRs have the capability to both increase and decrease the voltage of LV feeders and they are designed with bidirectional capabilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many modern voltage regulation techniques are not practical solutions due to the absence of communication infrastructure and/or associated costs involved.

“The work also discusses the fact that although some of the modern techniques may demonstrate excellent performance, many of these methods are not practical solutions due to the absence of communication infrastructure and/or associated costs involved.”

• cites [77] Georgilakis, 2017, Distributed and Decentralized Voltage Control of Smart Distribution Networks: Models, Methods, and Future Research, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Typical LVRs can operate within a range of 13% about the nominal voltage with an accuracy of 1 V.

“Typical LVRs can operate within a range of 13% about the nominal voltage with an accuracy of 1 V [48].”

• cites [48] City Power Consulting (2020). Future Grid for Distributed Energy-Appendices, City Power Consulting.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Compared to reactive power support from smart inverter functions, the main advantage of STATCOM is its ability to provide a higher level of VAr support from a single device.

“Compared to reactive power support from smart inverter functions, the main advantage of STATCOM is its ability to provide a higher level of VAr support from a single device.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A V2G charging algorithm can control charging current depending on PV power compared with load and discharge current using a triangular function.

“In reference [65], a V2G charging algorithm is proposed where the charging current is controlled depending on the power generated from the PV unit in comparison with the load, and the current is discharged using a triangular function.”

• cites [65] Alam, 2016, Effective Utilization of Available PEV Battery Capacity for Mitigation of Solar PV Impact and Grid Support with Integrated V2G Functionality, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Numerous examples of customer-owned distributed (behind-the-metre) energy storage devices are documented in the literature.

“Numerous examples of customer-owned distributed (behind the metre) ES devices are documented in references [51][52][53][54].”

• cites [51] Alam, M.J.E., Muttaqi, K.M., and Sutanto, D. (2012). Distributed energy storage for mitigation of voltage-rise impact caused by rooftop solar PV. 2012 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, 22–26 July 2012, IEEE. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [52] Azizivahed, 2020, Energy Management Strategy in Dynamic Distribution Network Reconfiguration Considering Renewable Energy Resources and Storage, IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [53] Horiba, 2014, Lithium-Ion Battery Systems, Proc. IEEE sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [54] Nick, 2018, Optimal Planning of Distributed Energy Storage Systems in Active Distribution Networks Embedding Grid Reconfiguration, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Energy storage systems are expected to play a key role in alleviating main issues related to high penetration of distributed renewable sources such as rooftop solar PVs.

“Energy storage (ES) systems are expected to play a key role in alleviating the main issues related to high penetration of distributed renewable sources such as rooftop solar PVs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In LV networks where PV uptake is more uneven or randomly distributed between phases, the VUF may conversely increase with PV penetration.

“In LV networks where PV uptake is more uneven or randomly distributed between phases, the VUF may conversely increase with PV penetration, and a systematic sensitivity study of VUF with respect to PV phase allocation is identified as an area for future work.”

May combine two claims.

This reduction of 35% of the line losses is one of the key advantages of distributed rooftop PV systems, as the loads can be supplied locally for a significant proportion of the day.

“In terms of distribution network performance, this reduction of 35% of the line losses is one of the key advantages of distributed rooftop PV systems, as the loads can be supplied locally for a significant proportion of the day.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The presence of more taps available to boost the voltage demonstrates that traditional distribution systems mostly require boost functionality to account for the voltage drop due to downstream power flow.

“The presence of more taps available to boost the voltage demonstrates that traditional distribution systems mostly require boost functionality to account for the voltage drop due to downstream power flow.”

May combine two claims.

Coordinated smart inverter control, community or distributed energy storage, and probabilistic analysis are important in planning and operating future PV-rich LV distribution systems.

“These recent contributions underline the importance of coordinated smart inverter control, community or distributed energy storage, and probabilistic analysis in planning and operating future PV-rich LV distribution systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

With increased network unbalance due to single-phase PV injections, it is essential to investigate the effect of solar PV on the neutral voltage and currents.

“However, with increased network unbalance due to single-phase PV injections, it is essential to investigate the effect of solar PV on the neutral voltage and currents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This voltage rise issue, along with voltage unbalance, makes it essential to perform a comprehensive reassessment of distribution system performance in order to find solutions and propose strategies to address these issues.

“This voltage rise issue, along with voltage unbalance, makes it essential to perform a comprehensive reassessment of distribution system performance in order to find solutions and propose strategies to address these issues.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Excess PV generation may lead to reverse power flow and increase the magnitude of the supply voltage at the consumer's point of connection in future distribution networks.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If the neutral wire needs to be expressed explicitly, the LV network impedance can be represented using a 4 × 4 admittance matrix, where the neutral grounding impedance can be added.

“If the neutral wire needs to be expressed explicitly, the LV network impedance can be represented using a 4 × 4 admittance matrix, where the neutral grounding impedance can be added.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For LV feeders, the effect of the neutral conductor is often eliminated by applying Kron reduction to obtain a three-phase representation.

“For LV feeders, the effect of the neutral conductor is often eliminated by applying Kron reduction to obtain this three-phase representation [100].”

• cites [100] Kersting, 1995, Distribution feeder line models, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The current-injection formulation provides a convenient way to model the combined effect of loads, rooftop PV systems and other devices connected at different nodes of the distribution network.

“This approach can be applied to both radial and weakly meshed networks, and the current-injection formulation provides a convenient way to model the combined effect of loads, rooftop PV systems and other devices connected at different nodes of the distribution network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The level of reactive power support from the PV system is controlled by the apparent power rating of the inverter.

“The level of reactive power support from the PV system is controlled by the apparent power rating of the inverter.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A key benefit of using a current-mismatch formulation in Cartesian coordinates is that the resulting Jacobian matrix closely resembles the network admittance matrix, with only the diagonal elements needing to be updated at each iteration.

“A key benefit of using a current-mismatch formulation in Cartesian coordinates is that the resulting Jacobian matrix closely resembles the network admittance matrix, with only the diagonal elements needing to be updated at each iteration.”

May combine two claims.

High PV penetration influences upstream OLTC operation and transformer loading, reinforcing the need for coordinated voltage management across voltage levels rather than isolated LV-only assessments.

“The integrated LV-MV analysis further shows that high PV penetration influences upstream OLTC operation and transformer loading, reinforcing the need for coordinated voltage management across voltage levels rather than isolated LV-only assessments.”

May combine two claims.

Voltage rise is not the only technical concern in PV-rich LV networks; unbalance and neutral potential behaviour must also be considered.

“These findings confirm that voltage rise is not the only technical concern in PV-rich LV networks; unbalance and neutral potential behaviour must also be considered.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A range of mitigation options has been identified, spanning traditional network reinforcement, smart inverter functions, demand response, low voltage regulators, energy storage, and FACTS devices, as well as more advanced coordinated and optimization-based control schemes.

“A range of mitigation options has been identified, spanning traditional network reinforcement, smart inverter functions, demand response, low voltage regulators, energy storage, and FACTS devices, as well as more advanced coordinated and optimization-based control schemes.”

May combine two claims.

MPC benefits for ES control come at the expense of higher computational effort and a requirement for reliable measurements, forecasting, and communication infrastructure, which can pose challenges for large-scale deployment in LV networks.

“These benefits come at the expense of higher computational effort and a requirement for reliable measurements, forecasting, and communication infrastructure, which can pose challenges for large-scale deployment in LV networks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The high R/X ratio associated with overhead network construction means the worst voltage scenarios can be expected in overhead systems.

“In addition, the high R/X ratio associated with overhead network construction means the worst voltage scenarios can be expected in overhead systems.”

May combine two claims.

High penetrations of rooftop PV led to characteristic changes in LV feeder behaviour, including midday voltage rise, increased voltage unbalance, elevated neutral-to-ground potentials in MEN systems and altered operating duties for on-load tap changers (OLTCs).

“The review has shown that high penetrations of rooftop PV led to characteristic changes in LV feeder behaviour, including midday voltage rise, increased voltage unbalance, elevated neutral-to-ground potentials in MEN systems and altered operating duties for on-load tap changers (OLTCs).”

May combine two claims.

Feeders with high PV-to-load ratios may require a combination of inverter-based voltage control, appropriate OLTC settings, and, where necessary, additional reactive power support or storage-based solutions.

“From a planning and operational perspective, the case study indicates that feeders with high PV-to-load ratios may require a combination of inverter-based voltage control, appropriate OLTC settings, and, where necessary, additional reactive power support or storage-based solutions.”

May combine two claims.

Traditional OLTCs were not designed to operate this frequently and this demonstrates that increased OLTC maintenance will be required and/or loss of life may be encountered.

“Traditional OLTCs were not designed to operate this frequently and this demonstrates that increased OLTC maintenance will be required and/or loss of life may be encountered.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The utilization of an increased number of taps of the OLTC will decrease its overall lifetime and may require early replacement or maintenance, as they were not designed to operate in a multidirectional distribution network.