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A Review of the Applications, Environmental Release, and Remediation Technologies of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
Open accessAbstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are pollutants that have demonstrated a high level of environmental persistence and are very difficult to remediate. As the body of literature on their environmental effects has increased, so has regulatory and research scrutiny. The widespread usage of PFAS in industrial applications and consumer products, complicated by their environmental release, mobility, fate, and transport, have resulted in multiple exposure routes for humans. Furthermore, low screening levels and stringent regulatory standards that vary by state introduce considerable uncertainty and potential costs in the environmental management of PFAS. The recalcitrant nature of PFAS render their removal difficult, but existing and emerging technologies can be leveraged to destroy or sequester PFAS in a variety of environmental matrices. Additionally, new research on PFAS remediation technologies has emerged to address the efficiency, costs, and other shortcomings of existing remediation methods. Further research on the impact of field parameters such as secondary water quality effects, the presence of co-contaminants and emerging PFAS, reaction mechanisms, defluorination yields, and the decomposition products of treatment technologies is needed to fully evaluate these emerging technologies, and industry attention should focus on treatment train approaches to improve efficiency and reduce the cost of treatment.
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![Figure 1 Pathways of direct human per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) exposure and its potential health effects [31,32,33,35,36,37,38].](/paper-figures/b3185bc4f06e4aff9faa51277dd85946/a-review-of-the-applications-environmental-release-and-remediation-technologies-figure-1.jpg)
![Figure 2 Classification tree of PFAS family compounds adapted from Buck et al. [3] and ITRC PFAS Team [10].](/paper-figures/d220f254474145f2ad87a74d9fee4ba7/a-review-of-the-applications-environmental-release-and-remediation-technologies-figure-2.jpg)
![Figure 3 Pathways of PFAS environmental release and exposure [6,10,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94].](/paper-figures/6d4d72ed006c40c9a3ac1508eb6abce3/a-review-of-the-applications-environmental-release-and-remediation-technologies-figure-3.jpg)
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“Additionally, the hydrophobic and lipophobic nature of PFAS can be primarily attributed to the low polarizability of fluorine atoms, combined with the presence of a stable terminal functional group attached to the fluoroalkyl chain (Gagliano et al., 2020; Meegoda et al., 2020).”
From Estimation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) half-lives in human studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Meegoda et al., 2020
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“Membrane systems, especially RO are expensive compared to GAC and ion exchange [23].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [23]
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“Longer-chain PFAS compounds typically exhibit higher sorption affinities for soil, influenced by hydrophobic interactions and the molecular size of the compounds [87,88].”
From Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS (2025) · cites this paper as [88]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Meegoda, J. N., Kewalramani, J. A., Li, B., & Marsh, R. W.
- Affiliations
- New Jersey Institute of Technology (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Meegoda, Jay N.
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2020-11-03
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 21
- Pages
- 8117
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7663283
- OpenAlex
- W3095851882
- Cited by
- 256
- References
- 183
- Citations by year
- 2026: 61 · 2025: 71 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 12
- FWCI
- 1.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (2016168)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental remediation with nanomaterials
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, environmental persistence, environmental release, PFAS fate and transport, human exposure pathways, PFAS regulation, remediation strategies, defluorination, emerging PFAS, co-contaminants, treatment train
- MeSH terms
- Construction Materials, Environmental Pollutants, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Quality
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