Cited by 460Social and Intergroup PsychologyEducation, Achievement, and GiftednessDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

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Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self‐affirmation on women's intellectual performance

Martens, Andy, Johns, Michael, Greenberg, Jeff, Schimel, Jeff·2006·Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.010

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“Given the evidence that self‐aYrmation appears to reduce stereotype threat among students in laboratory situations (Martens et al., 2006; Schimel et al., 2004), perhaps having students engage in aYrmation of non‐academic aspects of themselves in school settings could produce positive educational…”
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“Promisingly, lab studies demonstrate that affirmations can improve the performance of students working under the specter of a negative stereotype (Martens et al. 2006, Shapiro et al. 2012, Taylor & Walton 2011).”
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“At what point will gender stereotypes fade, or have they already, as hinted by some evidence that the gender stereotypes on which stereotype threat is based are fading (Biek, 2006; Martens et al., 2006).”
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“Martens, Johns, Greenberg, and Schimel (2006) recently demonstrated that when made aware of gender differences in spatial rotation ability, women performed worse than men on a test involving discriminating between figures in different spatial rotations.”
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“For example, Martens et al. (2006) randomly assigned college participants to complete a difficult math test that was described as either diagnostic (stereotype threat) or non-diagnostic (no threat control) of math abilities.”
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“Task performance suffers as a result of stereotype threat (that is, when people fear that they will perform badly and thereby conﬁrm stereotypes), butself-afﬁrmationeliminates thiseffect (Cohen et al. 2006, Martens et al. 2006).”
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“Importantly, this route to eliminate stereotype threat differs from past work in which tactics such as selfaffirmation (Martens et al., 2006), misattribution (Ben-Zeev et al., 2005), counterstereotypic exemplars (McIntyre et al., 2003), and individuation (Ambady et al., 2004) reduced stereotype…”
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“Self-affirmation enables for example to negatively stereotyped group members to perceive others as being less prejudiced (Adams et al., 2006) or to cope efficiently to stereotype threat (Martens et al., 2005).”
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“…(Johns et al. 2008; see also Jamieson et al. 2010); when they learn to displace negative thoughts with neutral thoughts (Logel et al. 2009a); andwhen they reflect on important personal values and other sources of identity unrelated to the threat (Martens et al. 2006; see also Cohen et al. 2009).”
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“And indeed, U.S. and French research indicates that an efficient means to counteract stereotype threat is to affirm one’s self-concept in valued domains (Croizet et al. 2001; Martens et al. 2006).”
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“However, events and information that threaten the self are often collective in nature, such as the failure of one’s group (Sherman & Kim, 2005) or the notion that one’s group has been a target of stereotypes (Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006; Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, 2006 ) or benefited from racism (A…”
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“…accepted December 23, 2012 (Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, 2006), and improve the academic performance of stigmatized group members (G. L. Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006; G. L. Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009; Martens et al., 2006; Miyake et al., 2010).”
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“Stereotype threat effects on performance can be reduced by shaping an incremental theory of intelligence (Aronson, Fried, & Good, 2002) or through self-affirmation in an unrelated domain (Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, 2006).”
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“Third, in both environments routine evaluative instructions trigger stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and value affirmations reduce threat (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009; Martens et al., 2006).”
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“Whereas previous research focusing on members of devalued groups has revealed the beneficial effects of self-affirmation on performance (Cohen et al., 2006; Martens et al., 2006) and of group affirmation on selfimprovement motivation (Derks et al.”
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“The present research advances stereotype threat theory and research in a number of ways.”
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“Individuals may shift to alternative means to meet their overarching needs for a positive sense of self in response, exemplified by findings on employing self-affirmation to combat stereotype threat (Martens et al., 2006; Sherman et al., 2013).”
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“Study 2 also demonstrated that selfaffirmation eliminated this effect, presumably by reducing the psychological threat posed by the stereotype (e.g., Martens et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethod
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“In this situation, the reduced threat condition may explain to the students before taking the exam that this particular exam has been constructed to eliminate gender bias ( Martens et al. 2006; Spencer et al. 1999) or, alternately, students in the experimental group may take the exam in a same gender setting and the r…”
Background
A scalable goal-setting intervention closes both the gender and ethnic minority achievement gap
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“…using such techniques as values affirmation (writing about important values; for reviews see Miyake et al., 2010; Cohen and Sherman, 2014; Walton, 2014), and self-affirmation (writing about a valued self-relevant characteristic such as sense of humour or social skills, Martens et al., 2006).”
Method
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“…in the current study, also because previous research on the effects of self-affirmation (e.g., Cohen et al., 2006; Koole & Van Knippenberg, 2007; Martens et al., 2006; Sherman & Cohen, 2002) and group affirmation (Derks, Van Laar & Ellemers, 2006; 2009; Sherman et al., 2007) has convincingly…”
BackgroundResult
Beyond test performance: a broader view of stereotype threat
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“As previously suggested, if they receive more preferential treatment on campus than African American athletes, then the label “student-athlete” may activate more positive, self-affirming associations that provide a buffer against stereotype threat (Martens, Johns, Greeneberg, & Schimel, 2006 ).”
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Healthcare Stereotype Threat in Older Adults in the Health and Retirement Study
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“However, when a self-affirmation paradigm is applied (eg, participants have to write a paragraph on a value that is personally important to them), the stereotype threat disappears; self-affirming women who autoaffirmed performed at the same level as women in the control condition.(55) Moreover, this concept can be use…”
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“, 2006; Walton and Cohen, 2007) and women (Martens et al., 2006; Miyake et al., 2010), with effects that may persist over time (Cohen et al.”
Background
Self-affirmation can enable goal disengagement.
Vohs, K. D., Park, J. K., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030478 · Cited by 74
“…attempting a nonfailure version of the task improved performance expectations and actual performance relative to participants who did not self-affirm, a finding consistent with prior work on the benefits of self-Figure affirmation (Epton & Harris, 2008; Martens et al., 2006; Sherman et al., 2000).”
Influential
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“This conceptualization of math skills as part of general intelligence, which we refer to as “math intelligence” (e.g., Dweck, 2014; Martens et al., 2006; Rattan et al., 2012), is based on two elements.”
Background
The Neuroscience of Stigma and Stereotype Threat
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Information about chemotherapy‐associated cognitive problems contributes to cognitive problems in cancer patients
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“Social psychological research suggests that teaching target groups about stereotype threat or providing them with positive affirmations may attenuate the negative effects of stereotype threat [21,22].”
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Stereotype Threat and Gender Differences in Performance on a Novel Visuospatial Task
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“There is some evidence that gender stereotypes exist regarding spatial task performance (Hall & Carter, 1999), but it is likely that differences in these skills are somewhat less culturally salient than those for other cognitive domains, such as mathematics (Martens et al., 2006).”
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Vacation Posts on Facebook: A Model for Incidental Vicarious Travel Consumption
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“Furthermore, Martens et al. (2006) found that female respondents were able to mitigate negative feeling by writing about aspects they valued about themselves.”
Background
Affirmative Meritocracy
Walton, G. M., Spencer, S. J., & Erman, S. (2013) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2012.01041.x · Cited by 78
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Women and mental rotation: Incremental theory and spatial strategy use enhance performance.
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A Review of the Stereotype Threat Literature and Its Application in a Neurological Population
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“Schimel et al. (2004) and Martens et al. (2006) found that females who self-affirmed when exposed to negative stereotypes performed better on math tests than did females who did not self-affirm.”
Background
Stereotype threat prevents perceptual learning
Rydell, R. J., Shiffrin, R. M., Boucher, K. L., Loo, K. J. V., & Rydell, M. T. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1002815107 · Cited by 64
“1 for the first six blocks and then introduced a self-affirmation manipulation (22) that in previous research has been shown to reduce the effects of ST (23).”
Gender difference does not mean genetic difference: Externalizing improves performance in mental rotation
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Manipulating power can affect memory conformity
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“This can result in the less powerful individual being disrupted which could lead to them performing worse on memory tasks as compared to powerful individuals ( Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, 2006 ).”
Background
When should I quit? Gender differences in exiting competitions
Hogarth, R. M., Karelaia, N., & Trujillo, C. A. (2011) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2011.06.021 · Cited by 66
The Beneficial Effects of Social Identity Protection on the Performance Motivation of Members of Devalued Groups
Derks, B., Van Laar, C., & Ellemers, N. (2007) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2007.00008.x · Cited by 77

Authors: Martens, A., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., & Schimel, J.
Affiliations: University of Arizona (US)
University of Alberta (CA)
Corresponding author: Martens, Andy
ORCID: Johns, Michael
Greenberg, Jeff
Venue: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2006-03
Volume: 42
Issue: 2
Pages: 236-243
ISSN: 0022-1031 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.010
OpenAlex: W2030568963
Cited by: 460
References: 36
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 35
FWCI: 24.29
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
UC Research Repository (University of Canterbury) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: stereotype threat, self-affirmation, gender stereotypes, mathematics achievement, spatial ability, diagnosticity, gender differences in performance

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Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self‐affirmation on women's intellectual performance

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