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Cited by 366Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

The Mindful Brain and Emotion Regulation in Mood Disorders

Open access
Farb, Norman A S, Anderson, Adam K, Segal, Zindel V·2012·The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry
DOI 10.1177/070674371205700203PMC PMC3303604
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Abstract

Mindfulness involves nonjudgmental attention to present-moment experience. In its therapeutic forms, mindfulness interventions promote increased tolerance of negative affect and improved well-being. However, the neural mechanisms underlying mindful mood regulation are poorly understood. Mindfulness training appears to enhance focused attention, supported by the anterior cingulate cortex and the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC). In emotion regulation, these PFC changes promote the stable recruitment of a nonconceptual sensory pathway, an alternative to conventional attempts to cognitively reappraise negative emotion. In neural terms, the transition to nonconceptual awareness involves reducing evaluative processing, supported by midline structures of the PFC. Instead, attentional resources are directed toward a limbic pathway for present-moment sensory awareness, involving the thalamus, insula, and primary sensory regions. In patients with affective disorders, mindfulness training provides an alternative to cognitive efforts to control negative emotion, instead directing attention toward the transitory nature of momentary experience. Limiting cognitive elaboration in favour of momentary awareness appears to reduce automatic negative self-evaluation, increase tolerance for negative affect and pain, and help to engender self-compassion and empathy in people with chronic dysphoria.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/070674371205700203

Cites

79 of 79 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

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  • Findingcitation

    In community samples, MBSR has been linked to decreased activation of cortical midline structures.

    “In community samples, MBSR has been associated with decreased activation of these cortical midline structures (Goldin et al., 2009; Farb et al., 2010)”
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    • cites Farb et al., 2010

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  • Findingcitation

    Compared with active control conditions, concentrative meditation increases recruitment of the anterior cingulate.

    “In comparisons of concentrative meditation against active control conditions such as simple arithmetic (Holzel et al., 2007), or visual object discrimination (Baron Short et al., 2007), meditation increases recruitment of the anterior cingulate”
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  • Findingcitation

    Mindfully attending to experience can reduce cortical midline activity even in people without training.

    “and efforts to mindfully attend to experience can reduce cortical midline activity even in untrained individuals (Farb et al., 2007).”
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    • cites Farb et al., 2007

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  • Findingcitation

    In mood disorders, cognitive control appears impaired, shown by weakened connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and limbic regions such as the amygdala.

    “In mood disorders however, this cognitive control appears to be impaired, as evidenced by compromised connectivity between the PFC and limbic regions such as the amygdala (Johnstone et al., 2007; Ressler & Mayberg, 2007).”
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  • Findingcitation

    Mindfulness training appears to help reduce cognitive rumination.

    “Mindfulness training appears to help reduce cognitive rumination (Ramel et al., 2004)”
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    Findingcitation

    Many patients have benefited from group mindfulness interventions over the past three decades.

    “Over the past 30 years, numerous patients have benefited from mindfulness-based group interventions (Baer 2003; Ospina et al., 2007)”
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    • Rests on an assumption: Recent clinical studies have validated the efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions.

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    Findingcitation

    The midline prefrontal cortex appears to be recruited during negative mood induction, reading self-referential trait words, and exposure to negative self-beliefs.

    “The midline PFC appears to be recruited in response to negative mood induction (Farb et al., 2010), reading self-referential trait words (Farb et al., 2007) and exposure to negative-self beliefs (Goldin et al., 2010).”
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    Findingcitation

    Short-term mindfulness interventions appear to improve the ability to notice changes in the sensory field and to refocus attention appropriately.

    “Encouragingly, short term mindfulness interventions appear to increase the ability to notice changes in the sensory field and refocus attention appropriately (Jha et al., 2007).”
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    Findingcitation

    Several studies have found broader reductions in cortical activity during meditation, and this effect appears to grow with more meditation experience.

    “Several other studies have observed more extensive reductions in cortical activity during meditation (Lou et al., 1999, Lazar et al., 2000, Baerensten et al., 2010, Ives-Deliperi 2011), an effect that appears to increase with greater meditation experience (Brefczynski-Lewis, 2007).”
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    Findingcitation

    Non-judgmental attention appears to allow novel and emergent feelings of self-compassion, which can strongly attenuate an individual's negative response to unpleasant events.

    “Non-judgmental attention appears to allow for novel and emergent feelings of self-compassion, which can powerfully attenuate an individual’s negative response to unpleasant events (Leary et al., 2007).”
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    Findingcitation

    Patients with social anxiety disorder showed reduced amygdala response to a negative emotional challenge after MBSR and reduced subjective sadness ratings when using breath attention as a regulatory strategy.

    “In a congruent finding, patients with social anxiety disorder demonstrated a reduced amygdala response to a negative emotional challenge following MBSR, and reduced subjective sadness ratings when using the regulatory strategy of attending to their breath (Goldin et al. 2010).”
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    Findingcitation

    Meditation practice has been associated with increased activity in the limbic system, thalamus and anterior cingulate cortex, linking sensory information to the cortex.

    “In keeping with this theory, meditation practice has been associated with increased activity among the limbic system, thalamus, and anterior cingulate cortex, linking sensory information to the cortex (Newberg et al., 2001; Brefczynski-Lewis et al., 2007).”
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    • cites Brefczynski-Lewis et al., 2007

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    Findingcitation

    A second study linked MBSR training to greater connectivity within auditory and visual sensory networks and, during a listening task, to greater prefrontal connectivity with auditory cortex and inhibition of visual cortex.

    “A second study related MBSR training to greater connectivity within auditory and visual sensory networks, and during a listening task, greater PFC connectivity with auditory cortex and inhibition of visual cortex (Kilpatrick et al., 2011).”
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    • cites Kilpatrick et al., 2011

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    Findingcitation

    More abstract feelings of social compassion appear to activate a similar network, though social compassion is longer lasting and later activating than empathy for physical pain.

    “More abstract feelings of social compassion appear to activate a similar network, though social compassion is longer lasting and later activating than empathy for physical pain (Immordino-Yang et al., 2009).”
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    Findingcitation

    A mindfulness intervention improved quality of life, depression and fatigue scores in a multiple sclerosis population but did not change ratings of physical symptoms such as lower and upper limb mobility.

    “For example, a mindfulness intervention led to improved quality of life, depression, and fatigue scores in a Multiple Sclerosis population, but did not alter on ratings of physical symptoms such as lower and upper limb mobility (Grossman et al., 2010)”
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    Findingcitation

    Grey matter changes have been seen after as little as an 8-week MBSR intervention, predicting increased hippocampal and posterior attention network volume.

    “Grey matter changes have been observed after as short a period as the 8-week MBSR training intervention, predicting increased hippocampal and posterior attention network volume (Holzel et al, 2011)”
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    Findingcitation

    Two recent studies of meditation's effects on pain found reduced activity in cortical midline elaborative processing regions and increased activation in primary nociceptive and sensory integration regions such as the insula and anterior cingulate.

    “Two recent studies of meditation’s effects on pain found reduction of cortical midline elaborative processing regions as well as increased activation of primary nocioceptive and sensory integration regions such as the insula and anterior cingulate (Zeidan, 2011; Grant, 2011).”
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    Findingcitation

    In mood disorders, many patients endorse self-compassion as a meaningful therapeutic construct, but their main difficulty is finding a way to realize this compassionate state.

    “In mood disorders, self-compassion is endorsed as a meaningful therapeutic construct by many patients, whose chief difficulty lies in finding a way to realize this compassionate state (Pauley & McPherson, 2010).”
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    Findingcitation

    Way et al. linked dispositional mindfulness to protective non-reactivity in the amygdala during rest and in response to a sadness challenge, while depressive traits predicted an opposite, activating response.

    “Way et al. (2010) linked the trait measure of dispositional mindfulness to protective non-reactivity in the amygdala during rest and also in response to sadness challenge, whereas depressive trait measures predicted an opposite, activating response.”
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    Findingcitation

    Dispositional mindfulness predicted a larger limbic-frontal tradeoff, suggesting that mindful participants were better able to use prefrontal attention networks to reduce stimulus-driven emotional reactivity.

    “Dispositional mindfulness predicted a greater magnitude of this limbic-frontal tradeoff, suggesting that mindful participants were better able to leverage prefrontal attention networks to reduce stimulus-driven emotional reactivity.”
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    • cites Creswell et al., 2007

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    Findingcitation

    A recent neuroimaging study linked self-criticism to dorsal prefrontal regions such as the dorsolateral PFC and dorsal anterior cingulate, while self-reassurance was linked to activity in the ventrolateral PFC, temporal pole and insula.

    “A recent neuroimaging study linked self criticism to dorsal prefrontal regions such as the dorsolateral PFC and dorsal anterior cingulate, whereas self-reassurance was linked to activity in the ventrolateral PFC, temporal pole and insula (Longe et al., 2010).”
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    Findingcitation

    In a study by the authors' group, open present-moment attention was linked to reduced midline cortical activation and novel activation of a right-lateralized network mainly involving sensory representations in the insula and secondary somatosensory cortices.

    “In one recent study by our group (Farb et al., 2007), the engagement of open, present-moment attention was associated with reductions in midline cortical activation but demonstrated novel activation of a right-lateralized network that was primarily characterized by sensory representations in the insula and secondary somatosensory cortices.”
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    Findingcitation

    When emotional information was consciously attended, emotional faces evoked less amygdala response and engaged greater prefrontal cortical resources.

    “When emotional information was consciously attended, the emotional faces evoked less of an amygdala response and engaged greater prefrontal cortical resources.”
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    Premisecitation

    Mood disorders are generally marked by an inability to regulate emotion adaptively, caused by greater negative reactivity and heightened self-focus.

    “Mood disorders, however, are broadly characterized by a failure to adaptively regulate emotion, due to heightened negative reactivity and increased self-focus (Clark et al., 1994).”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mindfulness differs from many meditation forms because it aims to broaden attention rather than focus it, unlike purely concentrative practices that sustain attention on one sensory object.

    “it is distinct from many forms of meditation in that it aims to broaden rather than focus attention, differing from purely concentrative practices that seek to sustain attention towards a single sensory object (Dunn et al., 1999; Lutz et al., 2008a).”
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    • cites Lutz et al., 2008a

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    Interpretationnone given

    Sensory practices appear to activate cortical regions that are distinct from the dysfunctional prefrontal-limbic loop.

    “Encouragingly, such sensory practices seem to activate distinct cortical regions from the dysfunctional prefrontal-limbic loop.”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because cognitive elaboration automatically triggers negative self-judgments that cannot be voluntarily overridden, mindfulness training tries to correct automatic dysphoric evaluation by attending to sensation rather than evaluation.

    “Since cognitive elaboration automatically triggers negative self-judgments that cannot be voluntarily overridden, mindfulness training attempts to correct automatic dysphoric evaluation through an attention to sensation rather than evaluation.”
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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For patients with a mood disorder, instructions to cognitively regulate negative emotion may be maladaptive because limbic emotional information is not affected by engaging the prefrontal cortices.

    “An important clinical implication of these findings is that for patients with a mood disorder, instructions to cognitively regulate negative emotion may be maladaptive, as emotional information from the limbic system is not impacted by efforts to engage the prefrontal cortices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    Attempts to reappraise negative emotion recreate habitual dysphoric interpretations, leading to rumination in which elaborating on negative affect perpetuates dysphoric mood.

    “Instead, habitual dysphoric interpretations are recreated during attempts to reappraise negative emotion, leading to rumination, in which elaborating on negative affect ironically perpetuates dysphoric mood (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000; Watkins et al., 2008).”
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    • cites Watkins et al., 2008

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    Interpretationreasoning

    A model of mindful emotion regulation needs two processes that are separate from reappraisal: attending to present-moment sensation and equanimity, the suspension of judging experience as good or bad.

    “we argue that a model of mindful emotion regulation requires two processes that are distinct from reappraisal: 1) attention to present moment sensation, as distinct from delving into memory or cognitive elaboration, and 2) equanimity, the suspension of judging experience to be intrinsically good or bad.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Standard emotion regulation strategies rely on reappraising negative events in a more positive narrative context or on suppressing emotional expression.

    “Normative strategies for emotion regulation are predicated on reappraising aversive events in a more positive, narrative based-context, or on behavioral strategies for the suppression of emotionally expressive behaviour (Goldin et al. 2008; Gross, 2002).”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Mindfulness training affects transient brain activity and also appears to produce longer-term structural changes consistent with repeated activation of limbic and interoceptive cortices.

    “While mindfulness training influences transitory brain activity, it also appears to effect longer-term structural changes commensurate with the repeated activation of limbic and interoceptive cortices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    These structural change data suggest that mindfulness training may increase the habitual capacity to encode momentary experience while reducing reflexive orientation to emotionally arousing stimuli.

    “These structural change data suggest that mindfulness training may be increasing the habitual capacity for encoding momentary experience while reducing the tendency to orient reflexively to emotionally arousing stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    One important function of mindful attention may be to recruit and integrate primary sensory cortices into prefrontal regions that support conscious awareness, and to refine this integration to prevent distraction from unintended stimuli.

    “Thus, one important function of mindful attention may be the recruitment and integration of primary sensory cortices into prefrontal regions supporting conscious awareness, as well as refining such integration to prevent distraction from unintended distracting stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    These improvements were limited to subjective assessments of well-being rather than reducing patient awareness of physical symptoms.

    “suggesting that improvements were limited to subjective assessments of well-being rather than reducing patient awareness of physical symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mindfulness is more than simply engaging in present-moment awareness; the rich forms of evaluation for empathetic, moral and self-referential processing associated with prefrontal default mode activity are valid and important aspects of experience.

    “Of course, as has been articulated by Siegle (2007), mindfulness is more than simply engaging in this present-moment awareness; the rich forms of evaluation for empathetic, moral, and self-referential processing associated with prefrontal default mode activity are valid and important aspects of experience.”
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    Interpretationnone given

    Some executive control is needed to manipulate the focus of attention in mindful emotion regulation.

    “Of course, some executive control is required to manipulate the focus of attention in mindful emotion regulation.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Instead, attention is positively directed toward present-moment sensation, giving a non-conceptual and non-threatening focus that does not depend on cortical midline activity.

    “Instead, attention is positively directed towards present moment sensation, providing a non-conceptual and non-threatening focus for attention that does not rely upon cortical midline activity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    By practicing disengagement from habitual interpretative and evaluative responses during cognition, it may be possible to widen interpretation and form new meaning previously inhibited by a habitual way of seeing the world.

    “Rather, by practicing the disengagement of habitual interpretative and evaluative responses during cognition, it may be possible to widen the scope of interpretation to form new meaning previously inhibited by a habitual way of seeing the world.”
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    Premisecitation

    Empathic concern is not purely a visceral and perceptual process articulated through limbic and inferior parietal regions; more analytic approaches to taking another's perspective also appear to recruit cortical midline regions such as the medial PFC and posterior cingulate.

    “It should be noted that empathic concern is not purely a visceral and perceptual process articulated through limbic and inferior parietal regions respectively; more analytic approaches to taking on another’s perspective appear to also recruit cortical midline regions such as the medial PFC and posterior cingulate (Decety and Jackson, 2004).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Automatic recruitment of temporally extended, self-referential narrative generation may undergo a form of neural extinction, restoring autonomy to the central executive system and freeing it from habitual applications.

    “In this fashion, automatic recruitment of temporally-extended, self-referential narrative generation may undergo a form of neural extinction, restoring autonomy to the central executive system and freeing it from its habitual applications”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationnone given

    Mindfulness involves attending to contextual salience without recruiting prefrontal evaluative processes, using attentional resources to engage a network that limits habitual elaboration and self-referential narrative.

    “Mindfulness involves attending to contextual salience without concomitant recruitment of prefrontal evaluative processes, deploying attentional resources to recruit a network that limits habitual elaboration and self-referential narrative.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    Connectivity and grey matter plasticity data tend to involve more limbic than prefrontal cortical regions, suggesting that prefrontal regions may not be the critical targets of mindfulness training; instead, the PFC may be affected by redeploying cognitive resources to less-rehearsed sensory pathways.

    “Interestingly, the connectivity and grey matter plasticity data tend to include more limbic than prefrontal cortical regions, again suggesting that prefrontal regions may not be the critical targets of mindfulness training, but rather the PFC is affected by the redeployment of cognitive resources to less-rehearsed sensory pathways.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Mindful emotion regulation can be understood as turning toward momentary experience rather than inhibiting cognition.

    “In this fashion, mindful emotion regulation can be construed as a process of ‘turning toward’ momentary experience rather than an inhibition of cognition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    These lateral regions may support detached, objective, interoceptive and somatic awareness that may serve as primitive sensory representations of the self.

    “These lateral regions may support more detached, objective, interoceptive and somatic awareness (Craig, 2002) that may serve as the primitive sensory representations of the “self””
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    • cites Craig, 2002

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    Interpretationcitation

    One long-term index of mindful emotion regulation is reduced detection of salient threats during emotional challenge, which may help assess treatment efficacy and patient vulnerability in behaviorally normalized cases.

    “Thus one long-term index of mindful emotion regulation is the reduction of salient threat detection in the face of emotional challenge, which may be useful in the assessment of treatment efficacy and patient vulnerability in behaviorally normalized cases.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
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  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The neural mechanisms by which mindfulness improves mood regulation are not well understood.

    “However, the neural mechanisms underlying mindful mood regulation are poorly understood.”
    “our understanding of the mechanisms underlying adaptive affect regulation through the practice of mindfulness is still nascent.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Recent clinical studies have validated the efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions.

    “While recent clinical studies have validated the efficacy of these interventions”
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Cites

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Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Opsina MB, 2007, Evid Rep Technol Assess, 155, 1
  2. Chambers CD, 2006, J Cogn Neurosci, 18, 444

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Related

Authors
Farb, N. A. S., Anderson, A. K., & Segal, Z. V.
Affiliations
  • Rotman Research Institute (CA)
  • University of Toronto (CA)
Corresponding author
Farb, Norman A S
ORCID
Venue
The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2012-02
Volume
57
Issue
2
Pages
70-77
ISSN
  • 0706-7437 (ISSN-L)
  • 1497-0015
DOI
10.1177/070674371205700203
PMC
PMC3303604
OpenAlex
W2184525448
Cited by
366
References
77
Citations by year
2026: 18 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 3
FWCI
3.97
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health
  • Health Canada
  • Canadian Institutes of Health Research (MT81164)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R34MH087723, R01MH066992, MH 087723)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords
mindfulness, emotion regulation, mood disorders, neural mechanisms, anterior cingulate cortex, lateral prefrontal cortex, cognitive reappraisal, self-compassion, empathy, pain tolerance, insula, thalamus
MeSH terms
Attention, Awareness, Brain Mapping, Emotions, Empathy, Humans, Limbic System, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Prefrontal Cortex, Meditation, Mood Disorders

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