Cultural group selection plays an essential role in explaining human cooperation: a sketch of the evidence.

Consistent with the hypothesis that individual variation for many normative beliefs and behaviors is small within groups and large between groups, we find large between-group differences among all groups of all scales.

“Consistent with the hypothesis that individual variation for many normative beliefs and behaviors is small within groups and large between groups, we find large betweengroup differences among all groups of all scales (Fig. 1).”

Our data reach well into the plateau of the L-shaped region of the group selection condition.

“Our data reach well into the plateau of the L-shaped region of the group selection condition.”

The extent of allomaternal care directed at immatures is the best predictor of experimentally assessed proactive prosociality within a group, far better than brain size, social tolerance, cooperative hunting, or strong social bonds.

“The results (Fig. 1A) show that the extent of allomaternal care directed at immatures is the best predictor of experimentally assessed proactive prosociality within a group, far better in fact than any other factor proposed so far, including brain size, social tolerance, cooperative hunting, or the presence of strong social bonds.”

• cites Burkart et al. 2014Not checked yet

Tighter states perceive a greater degree of external threat than loose states.

“perceive a greater degree of external threat, reflected in the desire for more national defense spending and greater rates of military recruitment, as compared to loose states.”

• cites Harrington and Gelfand (2014)Not checked yet

Under low threat, evolutionary pressures result in a more diverse mix of all possible strategies.

“Under low threat, the evolutionary pressures resulted in a more diverse mix of all possible strategies.”

EGT models show that groups facing a high degree of threat require stronger norms and greater punishment of deviance in order to survive.

“evolutionary game theoretical (EGT) models show that groups that face a high degree of threat require stronger norms and greater punishment of deviance in order to survive (Roos et al. 2015).”

• cites Roos et al. 2015Not checked yet

Tighter states support more isolationist policies than loose states.

“and supported more isolationist policies (such as buying American products exclusively and supporting government restriction of imported products) compared to loose states.”

• cites Harrington and Gelfand (2014)Not checked yet

Tighter states have fewer resources (greater food insecurity) than loose states.

“fewer resources (indicated by greater rates of food insecurity)”

• cites Harrington and Gelfand (2014)Not checked yet

Tighter states have a greater incidence of disease and health vulnerabilities than loose states.

“a greater incidence of disease and health vulnerabilities”

• cites Harrington and Gelfand (2014)Not checked yet

Tighter states have significantly lower residential mobility than loose states.

“Tighter states also had significantly lower residential mobility”

• cites Harrington and Gelfand (2014)Not checked yet

Field research across 33 nations documented a connection between ecological and historical threat and the degree of norm strength in groups.

“Field research across 33 nations first documented the connection between ecological and historical threat and the degree of norm strength in groups (Gelfand et al. 2011).”

• cites Gelfand et al. 2011Not checked yet

Individuals in tighter states have lower openness than those in loose states.

“and lower openness”

• cites John et al. 2008Not checked yet

Societies facing ecological and historical threats develop stronger norms and punishment of deviance.

“we tested this hypothesis across a wide range of variables and found that societies facing ecological and historical threats do indeed develop stronger norms and punishment of deviance (Gelfand et al. 2011).”

• cites Gelfand et al. 2011Not checked yet

Individuals in tighter states have higher levels of conscientiousness than those in loose states.

“Individuals in tighter states also had higher levels of conscientiousness”

• cites John et al. 2008Not checked yet

Initial results from our broad-scale assessment of these data indicate support for Richerson et al.'s assertion that CGS was active 'as far back as symbolic marking is evident.'

“Initial results from our broad-scale assessment of these data indicate support for Richerson et al.'s assertion that CGS was active “as far back as symbolic marking is evident.””

Temporary increases in threat cause norm strength to increase until the threat subsides.

“these models also found that temporary increases in threat cause norm strength to increase until the threat subsides.”

Homo erectus had already evolved the capacity for accurate overhead throwing.

“Roach et al. (2013) showed that Homo erectus had already evolved this capacity for accurate overhead throwing.”

• cites Roach et al. (2013)Not checked yet

Patriclan membership predicts large-scale cooperation in whale hunting better than genealogical kinship among foragers in Indonesia.

“Among foragers in Indonesia, field studies show that patriclan membership predicts large-scale cooperation in whale hunting better than genealogical kinship (Alvard 2011).”

• cites Alvard 2011Not checked yet

Pet-keeping occurs in humans only.

“First, petkeeping occurs in humans only.”

• cites Herzog 2014Not checked yet

Long-term affectionate relationships between non-conspecifics have not been observed in the wild, even in nonhuman apes.

“the fact that long-term affectionate relationships between non-conspecifics have not been observed in the wild, even in nonhuman apes”

Mothers who had pets in their childhood tended to raise their offspring with pets.

“A recent study found that mothers who had pets in their childhood, tended to raise their offspring with pets (Westgarth et al. 2010).”

• cites Westgarth et al. 2010Not checked yet

Practices common in modern Western societies, such as letting animals live in homes, sleep in beds, and considering them family members, are cultural anomalies.

“Cross-cultural studies reveal that practices common in modern Western societies, such as letting animals live in our homes, allowing them to sleep in our beds, and considering them full-fledged family members are cultural anomalies (Gray & Young 2010).”

• cites Gray & Young 2010Not checked yet

Dog breed preferences are unrelated to breed-characteristic qualities such as desirable behavioral traits and frequency of genetic diseases.

“are unrelated to breed-characteristic qualities such as desirable behavioral traits and frequency of genetic diseases (Ghirlanda et al. 2013)”

• cites Ghirlanda et al. 2013Not checked yet

Europeans were more likely to introduce extractive colonial regimes in relatively richer societies or regions where they could not settle.

“Europeans were more likely to introduce extractive colonial regimes in relatively richer societies or regions where they could not settle.”

• cites Acemoglu et al. 2001Not checked yet
• cites Acemoglu et al. 2002Not checked yet

The culture of honor within high castes in India is related to a low degree of coordination.

“The culture of honor within high castes in India is related to a low degree of coordination (Brooks et al. 2014).”

• cites Brooks et al. 2014Not checked yet

On Sri Lanka, 79% of Buddhist households include a dog, compared to 4% of Muslim households.

“On the multi-ethnic island of Sri Lanka, 79% of Buddhist households include a dog, compared to Muslim households, of which only 4% do (Knobel 2009).”

• cites Knobel 2009Not checked yet

Sudden shifts in the popularity of types of pets occur across cultural groups via social transmission.

“Sudden shifts in the popularity of types of pets occur across cultural groups via social transmission.”

Long-lasting changes in the popularity of types of dogs are sometimes instigated by media exposure.

“long-lasting changes in the popularity of types of dogs are sometimes instigated by media exposure (films with canine movie stars) (Ghirlanda et al. 2014).”

• cites Ghirlanda et al. 2014Not checked yet

Dog breed preferences are influenced by the decisions of others.

“We have found that dog breed preferences are influenced by the decisions of others (Herzog et al. 2004)”

• cites Herzog et al. 2004Not checked yet

Individuals do not exhibit a strong tendency to culturally transmit cooperative behaviour.

“A series of empirical field studies I conducted in rural India demonstrate that: (1) individuals do not exhibit a strong tendency to culturally transmit cooperative behaviour (Lamba 2014);”

• cites Lamba 2014Not checked yet

A series of public goods games across 14 populations found little evidence that people used either pay-off biased learning or conformity to copy others' cooperative behaviour.

“A series of public goods games, played with real money and for high stakes, across these populations found little evidence that people used either pay-off biased learning or conformity to copy others' cooperative behaviour.”

• cites Lamba 2014Not checked yet

The beliefs and values examined in the FST data are not associated with actual cooperative behaviours.

“However the beliefs and values examined are not associated with actual cooperative behaviours; for example, demonstrating that there is significant country-level variation in attitudes toward abortion has arguably little relevance to the argument at stake.”

Individuals took more salt for themselves and left less for others in larger villages.

“We found that individuals took more salt for themselves and left less for others in larger villages (Lamba & Mace 2011).”

• cites Lamba & Mace 2011Not checked yet

Behavioural variation observed across human groups is at least in part driven by demographic and ecological processes rather than cultural processes.

“(2) behavioural variation observed across human groups is at least in part driven by demographic and ecological processes rather than cultural processes (Lamba & Mace 2011;2012;2013);”

• cites Lamba & Mace 2011;2012;2013Not checked yet

Our attempts at testing parochial altruism using naturalistic field experiments in Northern Ireland found little evidence to support the idea that traits providing group advantage at individual cost are selected in intergroup competition.

“Our attempts at testing this hypothesis for the evolution of parochial altruismthe combination of in-group altruism and out-group hostility due to intergroup competition and conflictusing naturalistic field experiments in Northern Ireland, found little evidence to support this idea.”

• cites Silva & Mace 2014;2015Not checked yet

The historical pattern for the appearance and spread of kinship terminologies as part of the colonization of the Pacific Oceanic Islands can be presented as a phylogeny organized around structural differences in the terminologies.

“For example, the historical pattern for the appearance and spread of kinship terminologies as part of the colonization of the Pacific Oceanic Islands, first by Melanesians and then by Polynesians, can be presented as a phylogeny organized around structural differences in the terminologies (Read 2013; see Fig. 1 here).”

• cites Read 2013Not checked yet

The Netsilik Inuit's adaptation included a culturally prescribed system of sealing partners central to procuring and sharing seal meat in the winter months.

“Their adaptation included a culturally prescribed system of sealing partners central to procuring and sharing seal meat in the winter months.”

• cites Balikci 1970Not checked yet

In Ross et al. 2013, significant differentiation between groups was found with an average ΦST of 0.091, indicating that on average 9.1% of variation between individual folktales was between groups.

“We found significant differentiation between groups with an average Φ ST of 0.091, indicating that, on average, 9.1% of the variation between individual folktales was between groups”

Incorporating geography into the analysis revealed that at the level of individual folktales, geographic distance explains considerably more variation between folktales than group boundaries (6.6% of variance vs. 3.7%).

“However, incorporating geography into the analysis revealed that at the level of individual folktales, geographic distance explains considerably more variation between folktales than group boundaries (6.6% of variance vs. 3.7%).”

None of the 29 cultural FST estimates reported by Richerson et al. or the cultural FST estimates reported by Bell et al. (2009) have been analysed within a spatially explicit framework.

“None of the 29 cultural F ST estimates reported by Richerson et al. or the cultural F ST estimates reported by Bell et al. (2009) have been analysed within a spatially explicit framework.”

The average ΦST of 0.091 is considerably higher than the genetic differentiation found between comparable European populations.

“which is considerably higher than the genetic differentiation found between comparable European populations (Lao et al. 2008;Novembre et al. 2008).”

• cites Lao et al. 2008Not checked yet
• cites Novembre et al. 2008Not checked yet

Our cultural F ST estimates provide readily available evidence that between-group variation is sufficient for selection to act at the group level.

“Despite these limitations, we maintain that our cultural F ST estimates provide readily available evidence that between-group variation is sufficient for selection to act at the group level (Rogers 1990).”

• cites Rogers 1990Not checked yet

Heritable cultural variation often exists between groups at scales larger than groups linked by kinship or a history of reciprocation.

“A CGS framework is based on the empirical data strongly suggesting that heritable cultural variation often exists between groups at scales larger than groups linked by kinship or a history of reciprocation (target article, sect.4).”

Ethnographic evidence from hunter-gatherer societies suggests that our Late Pleistocene ancestors already had many interactions with non-kin that were regulated by systems of norms and institutions, even in societies numbering only a few hundred to a few thousand.

“Ethnographic evidence from hunter-gatherer societies suggests that our Late Pleistocene ancestors already had many interactions with non-kin that were regulated by systems of norms and institutions, even in societies numbering only a few hundred to a few thousand (Hill et al. 2014).”

• cites Hill et al. 2014Not checked yet

The empirical evidence from a range of domains provides robust qualitative support for the point that CGS describes real and important processes in human social evolution.

“We provide a guide to the relevant theory and argue that the empirical evidence from a range of domains provides robust qualitative support for the point that CGS describes real and important processes in human social evolution.”

Two of the three CGS forms are driven by human choices, in part based on prosocial emotions like Darwin's sympathy and patriotism.

“Two of these forms are driven by human choiceschoices in part based on prosocial emotions like Darwin's sympathy and patriotism.”

The CGS hypothesis is vulnerable to disproof in several empirical domains.

“The CGS hypothesis is thus vulnerable to disproof in several empirical domains.”

Evidence from developmental studies shows how a cognitive system for imitation arises in the first 12 months of life and dovetails with adult behaviors that support children's social learning.

“First, evidence from developmental studies shows how a cognitive system for imitation arises in the first 12 months of life and dovetails with adult behaviors that support children's social learning.”

Docile individuals more inclined to conform to norms would find it easier to enter larger more norm-bound groups and hence be able to acquire more sophisticated technology.

“Docile individuals more inclined to conform to norms would find it easier to enter larger more norm-bound groups and hence be able to acquire more sophisticated technology (Simon 1990).”

• cites Simon 1990Not checked yet

If the payoff to any strategy depends on the local frequency of its use, then even subpopulations in identical environments may reach different stable equilibria over time.

“If the payoff to any strategy depends on the local frequency of its use, then even subpopulations in identical environments may reach different stable equilibria over time.”

• cites Cooper 1999Not checked yet

The complexity of technology that a group can maintain is a function of its size.

“The complexity of technology that a group can maintain is a function of its size (Henrich 2004;Shennan 2001).”

• cites Henrich 2004Not checked yet
• cites Shennan 2001Not checked yet

Historical evidence shows that human culture exhibits a phylogenetic pattern of descent with modification in which ancestral commonalities can be traced back thousands of years.

“Second, historical evidence shows that human culture exhibits a phylogenetic pattern of descent with modification in which ancestral commonalities can be traced back thousands of years.”

If neutral marker traits correlate with behavioral norms that are difficult to observe, then selection may favor attentiveness to these markers as reliable signals of whom to imitate.

“If neutral marker traits correlate with behavioral norms that are difficult to observe, then selection may favor attentiveness to these markers as reliable signals of whom to imitate (McElreath et al. 2003).”

• cites McElreath et al. 2003Not checked yet

Genome-wide scans for genes under selection and comparative studies on chimpanzee-human differences detect strong recent selection at a large number of loci affecting genes that are expressed in the nervous system and in hormone producing glands.

“Genome-wide scans for genes under selection and comparative studies on chimpanzee-human differences detect strong recent selection at a large number of loci affecting genes that are expressed in the nervous system and in hormone producing glands.”

• cites Laland et al. 2010Not checked yet
• cites Ross & Richerson 2014Not checked yet

Other apes have a much more rudimentary social learning system.

“Other apes have a much more rudimentary social learning system.”

Natural selection among groups provides a relatively slow form of selection for traits that contribute to group success.

“This provides a relatively slow form of selection for traits that contribute to group success (Soltis et al. 1995).”

• cites Soltis et al. 1995Not checked yet

Selection on tribes can account for the innate foundation of our social psychology via the process of gene-culture coevolution.

“As we discuss below, selection on tribes can account for the innate foundation of our social psychology via the process of gene-culture coevolution.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The most ancient human groups are the ethnolinguistic tribes into which simpler societies are generally divided.

The best understood examples of culture-led gene-culture coevolution are adult lactase persistence and the hemoglobin polymorphisms that confer resistance to malaria.

“The best understood examples of culture-led gene-culture coevolution are adult lactase persistence (Durham 1991) and the hemoglobin polymorphisms that confer resistance to malaria (Allison 1964).”

• cites Durham 1991 sourceNot checked yet
• cites Allison 1964Not checked yet

Human cognition includes adaptations for imitation and teaching that allow the cumulative evolution of complex traits, including norms and institutions that regulate social behavior.

“Human cognition includes adaptations for imitation and teaching that allow the cumulative evolution of complex traits, including norms and institutions that regulate social behavior (Tomasello 1999).”

• cites Tomasello 1999Not checked yet

Modern nations and their subgroups rest on innate foundations that evolved from competition between ethnolinguistic units.

“While modern nations and the subgroups of which they are composed differ in many ways from ancestral tribes, they rest on the innate foundations that evolved from competition between ethnolinguistic units (Richerson & Boyd 1999).”

• cites Richerson & Boyd 1999Not checked yet

Punishment of those who engage in uncommon behaviors can stabilize essentially any norm within a group, regardless of its other adaptive consequences.

“Punishment of those who engage in uncommon behaviors can stabilize essentially any norm within a group, regardless of its other adaptive consequences (Boyd & Richerson 1992b).”

• cites Boyd & Richerson 1992bNot checked yet

It is difficult to see how the developmental and historical evidence can be reconciled with an extreme version of the later improvisational intelligence hypothesis of Cosmides and Tooby (2001).

“It is also difficult to see how the developmental and historical evidence can be reconciled with an extreme version of the later improvisational intelligence hypothesis of Cosmides and Tooby (2001).”

• cites Cosmides and Tooby 2001Not checked yet

Moral norms that evolved under the influence of CGS would exert social selection on human genes via mechanisms such as selective child neglect, mate choice, and punishment.

“Moral norms that evolved under the influence of CGS would exert social selection on human genes via mechanisms such as selective child neglect, mate choice, and punishment (Feldman & Laland 1996;Newson 2013).”

• cites Feldman & Laland 1996Not checked yet
• cites Newson 2013Not checked yet

Humans exhibit a wide variety of culturally transmitted organizational phenomena larger than, and different from, those reflecting biological relatedness and close pairwise partnerships.

“Humans exhibit a wide variety of culturally transmitted organizational phenomena larger than, and different from, those reflecting biological relatedness and close pairwise partnerships.”

Two quite distinct lines of evidence show that human culture acts as an inheritance system.

“Two quite distinct lines of evidence show that human culture acts as an inheritance system.”

Over repeated rounds of gene-culture coevolution, our Pleistocene ancestors came to have institutionalized social systems with complex sets of linked norms organizing tribal societies of a few hundred to a few thousand people.

“Over repeated rounds of such coevolution, stretching back perhaps several hundred thousand years, our Pleistocene ancestors came to have institutionalized social systems with (if ethnographic analogs are reliable) complex sets of linked norms organizing tribal societies of a few hundred to a few thousand people (Hill et al. 2014).”

• cites Hill et al. 2014Not checked yet

The functioning of complex institutions is highly dependent on tacit knowledge.

“The functioning of complex institutions is highly dependent on tacit knowledge (Aoki 2001).”

• cites Aoki 2001 sourceNot checked yet

A recent quantitative estimate of rates of cultural evolution using a large body of historical and archaeological data showed that it evolves considerably faster than genes.

“A recent quantitative estimate of rates of cultural evolution using a large body of historical and archaeological data showed that it evolves considerably faster than genes (Perreault 2012).”

• cites Perreault 2012Not checked yet

Children have powerful cognitive systems evolved to acquire quite complex cultural knowledge from their elders.

“Children have powerful cognitive systems evolved to acquire quite complex cultural knowledge from their elders.”

Selective imitation of successful groups favors the spread of group-beneficial norms and institutions.

“This favors the spread of group-beneficial norms and institutions (Boyd & Richerson 2002).”

• cites Boyd & Richerson 2002Not checked yet

The direct effect of environments was strongest on economy-related traits and medium to low on other traits.

“The direct effect of environments was strongest on economy-related traits and medium to low on other traits.”

• cites Guglielmino et al. (1995)Not checked yet

The effect of horizontal diffusion was high on the division of labor by sex and house type.

“The effect of horizontal diffusion was high on the division of labor by sex and house type.”

• cites Guglielmino et al. (1995)Not checked yet

The same basic system seems to operate across all domains of culture.

“The same basic system seems to operate across all domains of culture (Harris 2012).”

• cites Harris 2012Not checked yet

From the correspondence of linguistic time-depth estimates and archaeological dates, each of these language families appears to constitute a cultural adaptive radiation based upon agricultural subsistence and associated social-organizational features.

“From the correspondence of linguistic time-depth estimates and archaeological dates, each of these language families appears to constitute a cultural adaptive radiation based upon agricultural subsistence and associated social-organizational features.”

A strong phylogenetic signal in social organization is a necessary but not sufficient condition for CGS to have been an important process.

“Again, this is a necessary but not sufficient condition for CGS to have been an important process.”

Features of social organization often include strong phylogenetic signals that are correlated with the linguistic signal.

“Such studies show that features of social organization often include strong phylogenetic signals that are correlated with the linguistic signal.”

Over-imitation is probably an essential adaptation for building a repertoire of elementary skills and maneuvers that will eventually be incorporated into complex crafts and social institutions.

“However, over-imitation is probably an essential adaptation for building a repertoire of elementary skills and maneuvers that will eventually be incorporated into complex crafts and social institutions (Harris 2012).”

• cites Harris 2012Not checked yet

These innovations allowed their speakers to expand at the expense of hunter-gatherers in the Early and Middle Holocene.

“These innovations allowed their speakers to expand at the expense of hunter-gatherers in the Early and Middle Holocene.”

The effect of either vertical or horizontal transmission was strong on all traits examined.

“In other words, the effect of either vertical or horizontal transmission was strong on all traits examined.”

Many cultural adaptations are so complex that the functional significance of many elements of them is opaque to learners and often to accomplished practitioners as well.

“Many cultural adaptations are so complex that the functional significance of many elements of them is opaque to learners and often to accomplished practitioners as well.”

The transmission of complex cultural information and its cumulative evolution requires accurate imitation.

“The transmission of complex cultural information and its cumulative evolution requires accurate imitation (Tennie et al. 2009).”

• cites Tennie et al. 2009Not checked yet

Most grammatical constructions appear to be cultural features underpinned only indirectly by rather general cognitive features.

“Most grammatical constructions appear to be cultural features underpinned only indirectly by rather general cognitive features (e.g., Hurford 2011).”

• cites Hurford 2011Not checked yet

Human children routinely learn concepts with help from knowledgeable others that qualitatively transcend innate intuitions.

“Human children routinely learn concepts with help from knowledgeable others that qualitatively transcend innate intuitions (Carey 2009).”

• cites Carey 2009Not checked yet

Studies of child development strongly suggest that human social learning does accurately transmit cultural variants over a wide range of design space in many domains.

“Thus, studies of child development strongly suggest that human social learning does accurately transmit cultural variants over a wide range of design space in many domains (Carey 2009).”

• cites Carey 2009Not checked yet

Human social learning contrasts sharply with that of chimpanzees and other nonhuman animals.

“Human social learning contrasts sharply with that of chimpanzees and other nonhuman animals.”

Adults and knowledgeable children appear to be adapted to behave in ways that scaffold the learning of naïve children.

“Adults and knowledgeable children also appear to be adapted to behave in ways that scaffold the learning of naïve children (Csibra & Gergely 2011;Dean et al. 2012;Kline 2015).”

• cites Csibra & Gergely 2011Not checked yet
• cites Dean et al. 2012Not checked yet
• cites Kline 2015 sourceNot checked yet

The Walker et al. study quantitatively estimated rates of evolution in several Tupi cultural domains, usually less than five transitions in 10 millennia.

“The Walker et al. study is notable for quantitatively estimating rates evolution in several Tupi cultural domains (usually less than five transitions in 10 millennia).”

• cites Walker et al. 2012Not checked yet

Carefully following demonstrated recipes preserves functionality, albeit at some cost of replicating non-functional elements.

“Carefully following demonstrated recipes preserves functionality, albeit at some cost of replicating non-functional elements.”

The phylogenies of several large language families have been investigated, including Bantu, Austronesian, Tupi, and Indo-European.

“The phylogenies of several large language families have been investigated, including Bantu (Holden 2002), Austronesian (Gray et al. 2009), Tupi (Walker et al. 2012), and Indo-European (Bouckaert et al. 2012).”

• cites Holden 2002Not checked yet
• cites Gray et al. 2009Not checked yet
• cites Walker et al. 2012Not checked yet

The second-best-fitting model allowed for decreases (but not increases) in complexity to skip intermediate steps.

“The second-best-fitting model allowed for decreases (but not increases) in complexity to skip intermediate steps.”

• cites Currie et al. (2010)Not checked yet

Currie et al. (2010) found that in the best-fitting model, political complexity increased and decreased in incremental steps.

“They found that in the best-fitting model, political complexity increased and decreased in incremental steps.”

• cites Currie et al. (2010)Not checked yet

If adults suggest that it is important, children will replicate adult actions in ritualistic detail.

“If adults suggest that it is important, children will replicate adult actions in ritualistic detail (Herrmann et al. 2013).”

• cites Herrmann et al. 2013Not checked yet

In comparative studies with human children, chimpanzees tended to imitate only the behaviors necessary to reach a goal, while children diligently imitated all of an adult's behaviors whether or not they directly resulted in reaching a tangible goal.

“In comparative studies with human children, chimpanzees tended to imitate only the behaviors necessary to reach a goal, while children diligently imitated all of an adult's behaviors whether or not they directly resulted in reaching a tangible goal (Whiten et al. 2009).”

• cites Whiten et al. 2009Not checked yet

Early farmers in Europe were clearly the result of a demic expansion.

“Early farmers in Europe were clearly the result of a demic expansion (Haak et al. 2010).”

• cites Haak et al. 2010Not checked yet

Social norms are among the cultural traits that children readily acquire from adults and other children.

“Social norms are among the cultural traits that children readily acquire from adults and other children.”

Traits with some detrimental individual-level effect on reproduction and/or survival can also be favored if group benefits are sufficiently large to satisfy the inequality.

“Traits with some detrimental individual-level effect on reproduction and/or survival can also be favored if group benefits are sufficiently large to satisfy the inequality.”

The large cultural differences measured in this analysis suggest a wide scope for CGS.

“The large cultural differences measured in this analysis suggest a wide scope for CGS.”

The effects of out-group discrimination and in-group preference based upon cultural categories like race are evident as early as 3 years of age.

“The effects of out-group discrimination and in-group preference based upon cultural categories like race are evident as early as 3 years of age, when children begin to implicitly associate same-race faces with positive facial expressions and different-race faces with negative facial expressions (Hugenberg & Bodenhausen 2004).”

• cites Hugenberg & Bodenhausen 2004Not checked yet

Cultural systems can preserve much more variation between groups of unrelated or distantly related individuals than can genetic inheritance.

“In section 2.1 we reviewed the mechanisms by which cultural systems can preserve much more variation between groups of unrelated or distantly related individuals than can genetic inheritance.”

The more groups differ, the more effective CGS is likely to be.

“The more groups differ, the more effective CGS is likely to be.”

By the time people are adults, in many social situations, individuals' behavior is substantially influenced by their affect-laden social group identifications.

“By the time people are adults, much experimental work by social identity theorists shows that, in many social situations, individuals' behavior is substantially influenced by their affect-laden social group identifications (Haslam 2001).”

• cites Haslam 2001Not checked yet

Our average measurements of cultural FST place the group-benefit-to-cost requirement well within range of some important cultural behaviors.

“Our average measurements of cultural F ST place the group-benefit-to-cost requirement well within range of some important cultural behaviors.”

Bell et al. (2009) compared cultural FST from the World Values Survey with genetic FST from Cavalli-Sforza et al.'s (1994) classic study.

“Bell et al. (2009) compared cultural F ST from the World Values Survey with genetic F ST from Cavalli-Sforza et al.'s (1994) classic study.”

• cites Bell et al. (2009)Not checked yet
• cites Cavalli-Sforza et al.'s (1994)Not checked yet

Social learning biases act as a general force adapting culture to local environments.

“Social learning biases, such as those described previously, act as a general force adapting culture to local environments.”

These data suggest that the scope for CGS is substantially higher than for genetic group selection.

“These data suggest that the scope for CGS is substantially higher than for genetic group selection.”

Evolutionary forces that create relatively small differences between similar groups can provide some scope for group selection in cases where group benefits are high relative to costs.

“This relationship suggests that evolutionary forces that create relatively small differences between similar groups can provide some scope for group selection in cases where group benefits are high relative to costs.”

Small increases in cultural FST beyond 0.01 increase the possibility for CGS dramatically.

“These values are important, as small increases in cultural F ST beyond 0.01 increase the possibility for CGS dramatically.”

The scope for group selection is sensitive to changes in low values of FST, because the minimum condition declines geometrically with a linear increase in FST.

“Note that the scope for group selection is sensitive to changes in low values of F ST , because the minimum condition declines geometrically with a linear increase in F ST .”

Even very young children prefer teachers and social partners who belong to their own social group.

“Even very young children prefer teachers and social partners who belong to their own social group.”

The accurate imitation of cultural variation, especially group identities and social norms, is the basis for heritable cultural variation between groups upon which CGS can act.

“The accurate imitation of cultural variation, especially group identities and social norms, is the basis for heritable cultural variation between groups upon which CGS can act.”

The Price equation can be re-arranged to express the required conditions for a group-beneficial trait to be favored by selection in the face of individual-level selection against the trait.

“The Price equation, a general depiction of selection operating on multiple levels, can be re-arranged to express the required conditions for a group-beneficial trait to be favored by selection in the face of individual-level selection against the trait (Bell et al. 2009;Bowles 2006):”

• cites Bell et al. 2009Not checked yet
• cites Bowles 2006Not checked yet

Not all potential providers of social learning are equal.

“Not all potential providers of social learning are equal.”

Young children are strikingly inflexible with social norms and rules, resulting in young moral absolutists.

“Young children are strikingly inflexible with social norms and rules, resulting in young moral absolutists (Levy et al. 1995).”

• cites Levy et al. 1995Not checked yet

Chimpanzees' abilities to help and cooperate are more limited than human children's.

“Chimpanzees' abilities in this regard are more limited (Warneken & Tomasello 2009).”

• cites Warneken & Tomasello 2009Not checked yet

Human children are motivated to engage with others to pursue a shared goal without any reward, apart from the enjoyment of engaging with another person socially.

“Human children are also motivated to engage with others to pursue a shared goal without any reward, apart from the enjoyment of engaging with another person socially (Tomasello & Carpenter 2007).”

• cites Tomasello & Carpenter 2007Not checked yet

Aside from a few cases, computing cultural FST from ethnographic data is not possible because most ethnographers studying simple societies report only normative behavior and neglect individual variation.

“Aside from a few cases (e.g., Edgerton 1971), computing cultural F ST from ethnographic data is not possible because most ethnographers studying simple societies report only normative behavior and neglect individual variation.”

• cites Edgerton 1971Not checked yet

Attempts to raise chimpanzee infants as if they were children are unsuccessful because young chimpanzees rather quickly mature into independent individuals that are not very responsive to being taught social norms, much less adopting them spontaneously.

“Attempts to raise chimpanzee infants as if they were children are unsuccessful because young chimpanzees rather quickly mature into independent individuals that are not very responsive to being taught social norms, much less adopting them spontaneously (e.g., Hayes 1951).”

• cites Hayes 1951Not checked yet

For neighboring groups that might actually compete, cultural FST is approximately an order of magnitude larger than genetic FST.

“For neighboring groups that might actually compete, cultural F ST is approximately an order of magnitude larger that genetic F ST .”

• cites Bell et al. (2009)Not checked yet

Ethnographers have documented ample institutional diversity between small-scale societies that are our closest living approximations to Late Pleistocene societies.

“Similarly, ethnographers have documented ample institutional diversity between small-scale societies that are our closest living approximations to Late Pleistocene societies (e.g., Jorgensen 1980).”

• cites Jorgensen 1980Not checked yet

Efferson et al. (2008) showed experimentally that symbolic markers and in-group favoritism coevolve.

“Efferson et al. (2008) showed experimentally that symbolic markers and in-group favoritism coevolve.”

• cites Efferson et al. (2008)Not checked yet

One important institutional mechanism with substantial empirical support is the marking of group members through differences in dialect, dress, religion, and similar symbols.

“One important institutional mechanism with substantial empirical support is the marking of group members through differences in dialect, dress, religion, and similar symbols.”

• cites Iannaccone 1994Not checked yet

Even acephalous societies use egalitarian institutions to create societies with quite large-scale activities.

“Even”

• cites Mathew & Boyd 2011Not checked yet

Institutional variation creates substantial differences in behavior.

“These studies suggest that institutional variation creates substantial differences in behavior.”

Insko et al. (1983) demonstrated the evolution of institutions in a multi-generation experiment designed to mimic the origin of states.

“Insko et al. (1983) demonstrated the evolution of institutions in a multi-generation experiment designed to mimic the origin of states.”

• cites Insko et al. (1983)Not checked yet

The social life of living hunter-gatherers is certainly heavily institutionalized.

“The social life of living hunter-gatherers is certainly heavily institutionalized (Hill et al. 2009).”

• cites Hill et al. 2009Not checked yet

Societies where experiment participants used punishment to promote cooperation also scored higher on indices of civic cooperation and rule of law than societies in which some experimental participants punished cooperators.

“They found that societies where experiment participants used punishment to promote cooperation also scored higher on these indices than societies in which some experimental participants punished cooperators.”

• cites Herrmann et al. (2008)Not checked yet

Institutions are hard to try out, because for an institution to be effective, some critical mass of group members has to adopt its rules.

“Institutions are hard to try out, because for an institution to be effective, some critical mass of group members has to adopt its rules.”

The Ju/'hoansi frequently organize at the camp-and regional-level when drought forces them to aggregate at permanent water holes.

“The Ju/'hoansi (!Kung), another primarily familyband society, frequently organize at the camp-and regional-level when drought forces them to aggregate at permanent water holes (Lee 1972).”

• cites Lee 1972Not checked yet

Groups from societies that achieved high rates of cooperation over the 10 rounds of the public goods game had high rates of punishment of non-contributors.

“Groups from societies that achieved high rates of cooperation over the 10 rounds of the game had high rates of punishment of non-contributors.”

• cites Herrmann et al. (2008)Not checked yet

The empirical literature on village-scale commons management shows that the institutional diversity predicted by theory is amply manifest on the ground.

“The empirical literature on village-scale commons management is particularly well developed and shows that the institutional diversity predicted by theory is amply manifest on the ground (Ostrom 2005).”

• cites Ostrom 2005Not checked yet

Institutions from one group are often quite difficult for other groups to copy.

“Institutions from one group are often quite difficult for other groups to copy.”

Modern institutions vary substantially cross-culturally.

“Modern institutions vary substantially cross-culturally (e.g., Nivette 2011).”

• cites Nivette 2011Not checked yet

The institutions of another society are often hard to observe because outsiders can seldom see the entire system of rules working together.

“The institutions of another society are often hard to observe because outsiders can seldom see the entire system of rules working together.”

Archaeological evidence and ethnographic insights from living foragers suggests that tribal-scale societies were common in the Pleistocene.

“Some authors argue that institutions only arose in the Holocene (Runciman 2005), although archaeological evidence and ethnographic insights from living foragers suggests that tribal-scale societies were common in the Pleistocene.”

Evolution then takes the form of a collective, culturally local search for a replacement institution.

“Evolution then takes the form of a collective, culturally local search for a replacement institution.”

• cites Greif's (2006)Not checked yet

African evidence suggests that human use of symbolic markers goes back to about 164 k.y.a.

“African evidence suggests that human use of symbolic markers goes back to about 164 k.y.a (Marean 2010).”

• cites Marean 2010Not checked yet

The tendency of cultural items to diffuse between groups is favored by observability and trialability.

“The tendency of cultural items to diffuse between groups is favored by”

• cites Rogers & Shoemaker 1971Not checked yet

In repeated games without fixed end points, the number of equilibria multiplies inordinately.

“Game theory tells us that in repeated games without fixed end points, the number of equilibria multiplies inordinately.”

Archaeological data suggest that during the Middle Paleolithic to Upper Paleolithic transition, about 45 k.y.a, coherent cultural groups with stylistically different technology were moving about the Western Eurasian landscape.

“Archaeological data suggest that during the Middle Paleolithic to Upper Paleolithic transition, about 45 k.y.a, coherent cultural groups with stylistically different technology were moving about the Western Eurasian landscape (Tostevin 2013).”

• cites Tostevin 2013Not checked yet

If culturally transmitted institutions had a major coevolutionary impact on the innate components of our social psychology, then for some part of our evolutionary history humans must have lived in institutionally structured groups of a few hundred to several thousand individuals that were symbolically marked and shared a common identity.

“If culturally transmitted institutions had a major coevolutionary impact on the innate components of our social psychology (see sect.2.2), then for some part of our evolutionary history humans must have lived in institutionally structured groups of a few hundred to several thousand individuals that were symbolically marked and shared a common identity.”

Derex et al. (2014) showed that cultural transmission increases substantially in between-group competition compared to within-group competition treatments.

“Derex et al. (2014) showed that cultural transmission increases substantially in between-group competition compared to within-group competition treatments.”

• cites Derex et al. (2014)Not checked yet

Considerable collective decision-making and learning effort must be expended to integrate a novel institution with the other institutions of the adopting society.

“Considerable collective decision-making and learning effort must be expended to integrate a novel institution with the other institutions of the adopting society.”

The Turkana frequently raid neighboring ethnic groups for cattle.

“The Turkana frequently raid neighboring ethnic groups for cattle (Mathew & Boyd 2011).”

• cites Mathew & Boyd 2011Not checked yet

Lethal intergroup violence occurs between large human groups within which genetic relatedness is low and individuals do not know each other personally.

“However, lethal intergroup violence occurs between large human groups within which genetic relatedness is low and individuals do not know each other personally.”

CGS could well have been an active process as far back as symbolic marking is evident.

“CGS could well have been an active process as far back as symbolic marking is evident.”

The scale of Turkana raids can be very large despite the absence of hierarchical institutions.

“The scale of such raids can be very large despite the absence of hierarchical institutions.”

• cites Mathew & Boyd 2011Not checked yet

This evidence suggests that CGS occurs wherever significant cultural variation exists between neighboring and competing groups.

“This evidence suggests that CGS occurs wherever significant cultural variation exists between neighboring and competing groups.”

Many societies have such institutions of varying degrees of formality.

“Many societies have such institutions of varying degrees of formality (Nader 1969).”

• cites Nader 1969Not checked yet

This pattern strongly supports CGS operating among the Turkana and neighboring groups having similar patterns of ethnolinguistic-scale cattle raiding.

“This pattern strongly supports CGS operating among the Turkana and neighboring groups having similar patterns of ethnolinguistic-scale cattle raiding.”

Formal models indicate that genetic group selection can only support warfare in groups of, at most, a few dozen individuals.

“Formal models indicate that genetic group selection can only support warfare in groups of, at most, a few dozen individuals (Choi & Bowles 2007).”

• cites Choi & Bowles 2007Not checked yet

In vignette studies, Turkana raiders had very positive attitudes toward warriors who raided animals from another ethnic group and very negative attitudes toward those who raided another Turkana territory, even though the respondents' own territory would benefit from the spoils in both situations.

“In vignette studies, Turkana raiders had very positive attitudes toward warriors who raided animals from another ethnic group and very negative attitudes toward those who raided another Turkana territory, even though the respondents' own territory would benefit from the spoils in both situations.”

• cites Mathew & Boyd 2011Not checked yet

Losers or potential losers will also often attempt to emulate the technology and institutions of stronger societies.

“Losers or potential losers will also often attempt to emulate the technology and institutions of stronger societies.”

Archaeological and ethnographic data suggest that warfare occurred in a sufficiently wide range of societies for long enough to be a gene-culture coevolutionary force.

“Archaeological and ethnographic data suggest that warfare occurred in a sufficiently wide range of societies for long enough (Gat 2008) to be a gene-culture coevolutionary force.”

• cites Gat 2008Not checked yet

Warfare occurs in societies pre-dating agriculture and sedentary living.

“Warfare occurs in societies pre-dating agriculture and sedentary living (Keeley 1997).”

• cites Keeley 1997Not checked yet

The common ethnic identity of Turkana combined with effective norms and institutions are the proximate cultural mechanisms that make large-scale raiding possible.

“The common ethnic identity of Turkana combined with effective norms and institutions are the proximate cultural mechanisms that make large-scale raiding possible.”

Humans can make war because we solve collective action problems at large scales.

“Humans can make war because we solve collective action problems at large scales.”

Reciprocity based on warriors' reputations cannot by itself maintain cooperation in the Turkana raiding party.

“This means that reciprocity based on warriors' reputations cannot by itself maintain cooperation in the raiding party.”

Marriage is a credible signal of commitment because of institutionalized third-party enforcement.

“Marriage is a credible signal of commitment, for example, because of institutionalized third-party enforcement.”

Almost all cultures have one or a small number of standard, legitimate marriage contracts.

“Almost all cultures have one or a small number of standard, legitimate marriage contracts.”

Institutional support is required if people are to enjoy the benefits of highly cooperative interactions even in small social units.

“More likely, institutional support is required if people are to enjoy the benefits of highly cooperative interactions even in small social units.”

Dispute resolution is an example of the institutionalization of small-scale reciprocity.

“Dispute resolution is an example of the institutionalization of small-scale reciprocity.”

Even in politically un-centralized societies, CGS on simple institutions can support large-scale conflicts.

“Even in politically un-centralized societies, CGS on simple institutions can support large-scale conflicts.”

Groups with institutions that more effectively foster cooperation are most likely to be the victor.

“Similarly, groups with institutions that more effectively foster cooperation are most likely to be the victor (Turchin 2003;2006).”

• cites Turchin 2003;2006Not checked yet

Success and failure in warfare are often due to variation in the competing societies' technology, norms, and institutions.

“Success and failure are often due to variation in the competing societies' technology, norms, and institutions.”

CGS can favor the evolution of warfare between cultural groups comprising hundreds to millions of mostly genetically unrelated individuals.

“CGS can favor the evolution of warfare between cultural groups comprising hundreds to millions of mostly genetically unrelated individuals.”

The evidence does suggest that the organization of anonymous societies using institutions has roots in the Pleistocene.

“The increase in institutional size and complexity in many societies in the Holocene is striking, but the evidence does suggest that the organization of anonymous societies using institutions has roots in the Pleistocene.”

Human societies that successfully suppress and sanction within-group violence can still suffer high mortality from intergroup conflict.

“Human societies that successfully suppress and sanction within-group violence, can still suffer high mortality from intergroup conflict.”

Over the past 200 years, democracies have been replacing autocracies.

“Over the past 200 years, democracies have been replacing autocracies.”

Competition among firms creates a Darwinian dynamic.

“Economists have noted that competition among firms creates a Darwinian dynamic (Nelson & Winter 1982;Schumpeter et al. 1934;Veblen 1898).”

• cites Nelson & Winter 1982Not checked yet
• cites Schumpeter et al. 1934Not checked yet
• cites Veblen 1898Not checked yet

When cultural differences influence a firm's success, CGS will occur.

“When those cultural differences influence a firm's success, CGS will occur.”

Language only functions if there is a considerable degree of trust among speakers, who comprise groups far larger than families.

“Second, language only functions if there is a considerable degree of trust among speakers, who comprise groups far larger than families.”

Economic competition is an important and typically peaceful form of CGS.

“Economic competition is an important and typically peaceful form of CGS.”

Language is necessary for sophisticated norms and institutions to function.

“First, language is necessary for sophisticated norms and institutions to function.”

Variation in economic systems and political institutions between societies also affects military success.

“Variation in economic systems and political institutions between societies also affects military success.”

Language differences are among the most important markers of group boundaries.

“Third, language differences are among the most important markers of group boundaries”

Competition between human organizations is certainly not restricted to violent conflict.

“Competition between human organizations is certainly not restricted to violent conflict.”

Part of the reason democracies have been replacing autocracies may be because democracies have been more likely to win wars.

“Part of the reason may be because democracies have been more likely to win wars (Reiter & Stam 2002).”

• cites Reiter & Stam 2002Not checked yet

Much of the important know-how influencing firm success is tacit, embedded in the skills of individuals and informal routines of interaction.

“Nelson and Winter's (1982) highly cited classic argues that much of the important know-how influencing firm success is tacit, embedded in the skills of individuals and informal routines of interaction.”

• cites Nelson and Winter's (1982)Not checked yet

Some of the success and failure of individual firms is caused by the structure, management style, institutions, and other aspects of the culture of the firm itself.

“Some of the success and failure of individual firms is caused by the structure, management style, institutions, and other aspects of the culture of the firm itself.”

Limited linguistic communication makes the diffusion of institutions between societies more difficult.

“and limited linguistic communication makes the diffusion of institutions between societies more difficult.”

Victorious groups often expand their borders and absorb conquered peoples.

“Victorious groups often expand their borders and absorb conquered peoples.”

The differential proliferation and extinction of firms influences the future population of firms and frequencies of business practices.

“The differential proliferation (market entry and split) and extinction (market exit and bankruptcy) of firms influences the future population of firms and frequencies of business practices.”

This is consistent with the gradual increase in the complexity and size of societies over the last 10 millennia.

“This is consistent with the gradual increase in the complexity and size of societies over the last 10 millennia.”

Agriculturalists find it easier to stockpile resources to feed standing armies than herders.

“Agriculturalists find it easier to stockpile resources to feed standing armies than herders (Turchin 2006).”

• cites Turchin 2006Not checked yet

Cultural systems associated with Islam and Christianity have also spread in part through military conquests, facilitated by coercive as well as voluntary conversion of peoples dominated by the victors.

“Cultural systems associated with Islam and Christianity have also spread in part through military conquests, facilitated by coercive as well as voluntary conversion of peoples dominated by the victors.”

This information is hard to acquire by borrowing from successful firms and even selective hiring.

“This information is hard to acquire by borrowing from successful firms and even selective hiring.”

Warfare clearly demonstrates the requirements for CGS.

“To summarize, warfare clearly demonstrates the requirements for CGS.”

Economic CGS is partly responsible for ongoing rapid evolution in the domains of organizational rules, structure, business practices, and technology.

“It is partly responsible for ongoing rapid evolution in the domains of organizational rules, structure, business practices, and technology.”

In small-scale societies, language differences generally mark the boundaries of groups that conflict.

“In small-scale societies, language differences generally mark the boundaries of groups that conflict (Nettle 1999).”

• cites Nettle 1999 sourceNot checked yet

Language plays an important role in solving collective action problems.

“Smith (2010) reviews the ample evidence that language plays an important role in solving collective action problems.”

• cites Smith (2010)Not checked yet

No evidence of tight, innate constraints on language has been observed.

“It is easy to imagine how tight, innate constraints might affect language (Sampson 2005), but no evidence of such constraints has been observed.”

• cites Sampson 2005Not checked yet

Communication systems in animals are largely restricted to costly signals or situations where deceptive signals can be detected and punished.

“Communication systems in animals are largely restricted to costly signals or situations where deceptive signals can be detected and punished (Lachmann et al. 2001).”

• cites Lachmann et al. 2001Not checked yet

At least a modicum of trust and cooperation seems necessary before a low-cost high-fidelity communication system could begin to evolve.

“Thus, at least a modicum of trust and cooperation seems necessary before a low-cost high-fidelity communication system could begin to evolve.”

Much variation in norms and institutions is deeply embedded in the vocabulary and syntax of languages.

“Much variation in norms and institutions is deeply embedded in the vocabulary and syntax of languages (Wierzbicka 1992).”

• cites Wierzbicka 1992 sourceNot checked yet

Languages are highly variable in every element that has been studied closely.

“Languages are highly variable in every element that has been studied closely (Newmeyer 2004).”

• cites Newmeyer 2004Not checked yet

Language differences help preserve the between-group variation that CGS acts on.

“Language differences thus help preserve the between-group variation that CGS acts on.”

The stunning diversity of languages shows that differences between languages readily evolve.

“The stunning diversity of languages shows that differences between languages readily evolve (Nettle 1999).”

• cites Nettle 1999 sourceNot checked yet

The ensuing emotional identification of followers with their leaders probably leads to followers adopting the speech variants of such leaders.

“The ensuing emotional identification of followers with their leaders probably leads to followers adopting the speech variants of such leaders.”

Language diversity suggests that language is an important component of CGS.

“Language diversity suggests that language is an important component of CGS.”

Leader charisma is essentially a recognition by followers that a leader is prototypical of the in-group.

“Social identity theorists have shown leader charisma to be essentially a recognition by followers that a leader is prototypical of the in-group (Steffens et al. 2014).”

• cites Steffens et al. 2014Not checked yet

Leaders of dialect evolution are typically individuals with high local prestige.

“Leaders of dialect evolution are typically individuals with high local prestige.”

19th-century deaf-mutes could learn complex manual skills by imitation alone.

“Donald reviews evidence that 19thcentury deaf-mutes could learn complex manual skills by imitation alone.”

• cites DonaldNot checked yet

Linguistically encoded information is often tacit knowledge that is shared by speakers but diffuses with difficulty to other languages.

“Such linguistically encoded information is often tacit knowledge that is shared by speakers but diffuses with difficulty to other languages.”

The existence of human language presupposes cooperation.

“The evolution of the capacity for languages that can serve cooperative functions is a considerable puzzle, because the existence of human language presupposes cooperation (Hurford 2007).”

• cites Hurford 2007Not checked yet

Small but socially significant dialect differences emerge rapidly along social fault lines, implicating the active evolution of symbolic marking rather than, or in addition to, drift-like differentiation of languages.

“Sociolinguists find that small but socially significant dialect differences emerge rapidly along social fault lines, implicating the active evolution of symbolic marking rather than, or in addition to, drift-like differentiation of languages (Labov 2001).”

• cites Labov 2001Not checked yet

A scenario in which the capacity for complex trustworthy language evolved by CGS and culture-led gene-culture coevolution is plausible.

“Thus, a scenario in which the capacity for complex trustworthy language evolved by CGS and culture-led geneculture coevolution (see sect.2.2), is plausible.”

Dances and similar motor rituals are among the things that pre-linguistic but highly mimetic humans could likely acquire.

“Dances and similar motor rituals are among the things that pre-linguistic but highly mimetic humans could likely acquire.”

Expanding language families often mark the expansion of a complex of technical and social innovations.

“Expanding language families often mark the expansion of a complex of technical and social innovations; the Indo-European, Bantu, Tupi, and Austronesian families are examples, as we have noted in section 3.2.”

Punishers do not need to be cooperative themselves to furnish some of the benefits of cooperation.

“Punishers do not even need to be cooperative themselves to furnish some of the benefits of cooperation (Eldakar & Wilson 2008), but many experiments have detected altruistic punishment (Fehr & Gachter 2002).”

• cites Eldakar & Wilson 2008Not checked yet

All successful small-scale common property systems have institutions for monitoring and punishing defectors.

“All successful small-scale common property systems have institutions for monitoring and punishing defectors (Ostrom 1990).”

• cites Ostrom 1990Not checked yet

Violent or peaceful competition between organizations depends upon the preservation of between-organization differences.

“Violent or peaceful competition between organizations depends upon the preservation of between-organization differences, and to compete successfully, an organization must solve dilemmas of cooperation among its members (Wilson 2002).”

• cites Wilson 2002Not checked yet

Experimental studies using economic games support the findings of models.

“Experimental studies using economic games support the findings of models.”

In contemporary societies, measures of culturally inherited trust are correlated with economic performance.

“In contemporary societies, measures of culturally inherited trust are correlated with economic performance (Algan & Cahuc 2010).”

• cites Algan & Cahuc 2010Not checked yet

To compete successfully, an organization must solve dilemmas of cooperation among its members.

“Violent or peaceful competition between organizations depends upon the preservation of between-organization differences, and to compete successfully, an organization must solve dilemmas of cooperation among its members (Wilson 2002).”

• cites Wilson 2002Not checked yet

CGS can favor reputational and other motivational systems that alter individual incentives, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for altruism.

“CGS can favor reputational and other motivational systems that alter individual incentives, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for altruism (Fehr & Henrich 2003;Panchanathan & Boyd 2004).”

• cites Fehr & Henrich 2003Not checked yet
• cites Panchanathan & Boyd 2004Not checked yet

Moralistic punishment can be a very effective mechanism for promoting cooperation.

“Theoretical models (e.g., Boyd et al. 2003) and experiments (Fehr & Gachter 2002) suggest that moralistic punishment can be a very effective mechanism for promoting cooperation.”

• cites Boyd et al. 2003Not checked yet
• cites Fehr & Gachter 2002Not checked yet

Many experiments have detected altruistic punishment.

“Punishers do not even need to be cooperative themselves to furnish some of the benefits of cooperation (Eldakar & Wilson 2008), but many experiments have detected altruistic punishment (Fehr & Gachter 2002).”

• cites Fehr & Gachter 2002Not checked yet

In experimental treatments designed to induce research participants to empathize with someone who is going to suffer a harm, many people will volunteer to help the victim at a cost to themselves.

“In experimental treatments designed to induce research participants to empathize with someone who is going to suffer a harm, many people will volunteer to help the victim at a cost to themselves.”

• cites Batson 2011Not checked yet

In experimental settings, people readily migrate from model societies that do not have sanctioning institutions to join ones that do.

“In experimental settings, people readily migrate from model societies that do not have sanctioning institutions to join ones that do (Gürerk et al. 2006).”

• cites Gürerk et al. 2006Not checked yet

An innate capacity for the rapid cultural evolution of linguistic and other symbolic differences plausibly coevolved with group selection on cultural variation.

“Thus, an innate capacity for the rapid cultural evolution of linguistic and other symbolic differences plausibly coevolved with group selection on cultural variation (see sect.2.2).”

The quality of institutions regulating crime and deviance will play a significant role in the performance of human organizations.

“Thus, we expect that the quality of institutions regulating crime and deviance will play a significant role in the performance of human organizations.”

CGS will tend to favor societies that produce public goods like defense, transportation infrastructure, and a fair legal system.

“CGS will tend to favor societies that produce public goods like defense, transportation infrastructure, and a fair legal system.”

One of the most important public goods produced in human societies are institutions of order and justice that protect individuals from predators and public goods from free-riders.

“One of the most important public goods produced in human societies are institutions of order and justice that protect individuals from predators and public goods from free-riders.”

The evolution of altruistic punishment is likely to be frequency dependent.

“Models suggest that the evolution of altruistic punishment is likely to be frequency dependent (Boyd & Richerson 1992b).”

• cites Boyd & Richerson 1992bNot checked yet

If punishment is sufficiently costly to the punished and cheap to the punisher, a relatively few punishers suffice to encourage reluctant cooperators and would-be defectors to cooperate.

“If punishment is sufficiently costly to the punished and cheap to the punisher, a relatively few punishers suffice to encourage reluctant cooperators and would-be defectors to cooperate.”

Only a minority of participants act altruistically.

“Only a minority of participants act altruistically.”

Corrupt elites tend to be replaced by competitors who provide better governance.

“Corrupt elites tend to be replaced by competitors who provide better governance.”

• cites Turchin and Nefedov (2009)Not checked yet

Variation in the effectiveness of controlling self-seeking behavior is related to all three forms of group selection.

“Historical and ethnographic data suggest that variation in the effectiveness of controlling self-seeking behavior is related to all three forms of group selection.”

In the modern world, large numbers of migrants move from countries with low norms of civic cooperation and poor rule of law to countries with more civic cooperation and better rule of law.

“In the modern world, large numbers of migrants move from countries with low norms of civic cooperation and poor rule of law to countries with more civic cooperation and better rule of law (Boyd & Richerson 2009).”

• cites Boyd & Richerson 2009Not checked yet

The increasing acceptance of the rule of law in Early Modern Europe is fundamental to that region's explosive demographic and economic growth.

“The increasing acceptance of the rule of law in Early Modern Europe is fundamental to that region's explosive demographic and economic growth (North et al. 2009).”

• cites North et al. 2009Not checked yet

Successful empires, such as those of ancient Rome and Han China, had more effective institutions for producing public goods and incorporating new populations into their expanding polities than their competitors.

“Successful empires, such as those of ancient Rome and Han China, had more effective institutions for producing public goods and incorporating new populations into their expanding polities than their competitors.”

Much of the last five millennia of human history can be read as a slow, halting increase in the effectiveness of such institutions.

“Much of the last five millennia of human history can be read as a slow, halting increase in the effectiveness of such institutions (e.g., Fukuyama 2011).”

• cites Fukuyama 2011Not checked yet

We have ample evidence that internal regulatory systems control deviance and solve dilemmas of cooperation to varying degrees of effectiveness.

“Thus, we have ample evidence that internal regulatory systems control deviance and solve dilemmas of cooperation to varying degrees of effectiveness.”

Religions contain effective mechanisms for reducing internal variation through sacred principles and norm-enforcing rules of reward, punishment, and exclusion, which bind participants into moral communities.

“Religions contain effective mechanisms for reducing internal variation through sacred principles and norm-enforcing rules of reward, punishment, and exclusion, which bind participants into moral communities (Atran 2010;Graham & Haidt 2010;Rappaport 1999).”

• cites Atran 2010Not checked yet
• cites Graham & Haidt 2010Not checked yet
• cites Rappaport 1999Not checked yet

Numerous studies have found evidence for group-functional properties of religions.

“Numerous studies have found evidence for group-functional properties of religions (Atran 2002;Atran & Norenzayan 2005;Boyer 2001).”

• cites Atran 2002Not checked yet
• cites Atran & Norenzayan 2005Not checked yet
• cites Boyer 2001Not checked yet

Many human groups meet the basic criteria necessary for selection to operate: heritable variation and competition, the outcome of which is based on that heritable variation.

“As Darwin (1874) argued in The Descent of Man, many human groups meet the basic criteria necessary for selection to operate: heritable variation and competition, the outcome of which is based on that heritable variation.”

• cites Darwin (1874)Not checked yet

Ethnographic evidence of the prerequisites for and operation of CGS in the simplest societies suggests that CGS has operated in our lineage for a few tens of millennia, if not longer.

“Ethnographic evidence of the prerequisites for and operation of CGS in the simplest societies suggests that CGS has operated in our lineage for a few tens of millennia, if not longer.”

This variation is transmitted to new generations by the human capacity to acquire norms and social institutions via imitation and teaching.

“This variation is transmitted to new generations by the human capacity to acquire norms and social institutions via imitation and teaching.”

Sacred rules supply a stable and enforceable moral code, held as inviolable by religious adherents.

“They supply a stable and enforceable moral code, held as inviolable by religious adherents (Atran 2010).”

• cites Atran 2010Not checked yet

Belief in moralizing high gods is associated with willingness to punish non-cooperators.

“Belief in moralizing high gods is associated with cooperative altruism (Johnson 2005;Shariff et al. 2009) and willingness to punish non-cooperators (McKay et al. 2011).”

• cites McKay et al. 2011Not checked yet

The evidence sketched here is more than sufficient to justify taking the CGS hypothesis seriously as a basic explanation for our species' highly unusual ability to create large societies with widespread cooperation between non-relatives.

“We submit that the evidence sketched here is more than sufficient to justify taking the CGS hypothesis seriously as a basic explanation for our species' highly unusual ability to create large societies with widespread cooperation between non-relatives.”

The success of key cultural innovations that generate well-documented associations between in-group prosociality and religious/ritual participation appear to be clear examples of group functionality.

“The success of a number of key cultural innovations that generate well-documented associations between in-group prosociality and religious/ritual participation appear to be clear examples of group functionality (Henrich et al. 2010a;Norenzayan & Shariff 2008).”

• cites Henrich et al. 2010aNot checked yet
• cites Norenzayan & Shariff 2008Not checked yet

The cooperative imperatives produced by rudimentary culturally transmitted institutions may well have shaped our innate social psychology.

“If so, the cooperative imperatives produced by rudimentary culturally transmitted institutions may well have shaped our innate social psychology.”

Culture varies between human groups ranging in size from organizations within societies to ethnolinguistic tribes and nations, and even multi-ethnic empires.

“The evidence we have outlined in this article makes the case that culture varies between human groups ranging in size from organizations within societies to ethnolinguistic tribes and nations, and even multi-ethnic empires.”

Belief in moralizing high gods is associated with cooperative altruism.

“Belief in moralizing high gods is associated with cooperative altruism (Johnson 2005;Shariff et al. 2009) and willingness to punish non-cooperators (McKay et al. 2011).”

• cites Johnson 2005Not checked yet
• cites Shariff et al. 2009Not checked yet