Sequencing ancient calcified dental plaque shows changes in oral microbiota with dietary shifts of the Neolithic and Industrial revolutions
Open accessAbstract
The importance of commensal microbes for human health is increasingly recognized, yet the impacts of evolutionary changes in human diet and culture on commensal microbiota remain almost unknown. Two of the greatest dietary shifts in human evolution involved the adoption of carbohydrate-rich Neolithic (farming) diets (beginning ∼10,000 years before the present) and the more recent advent of industrially processed flour and sugar (in ∼1850). Here, we show that calcified dental plaque (dental calculus) on ancient teeth preserves a detailed genetic record throughout this period. Data from 34 early European skeletons indicate that the transition from hunter-gatherer to farming shifted the oral microbial community to a disease-associated configuration. The composition of oral microbiota remained unexpectedly constant between Neolithic and medieval times, after which (the now ubiquitous) cariogenic bacteria became dominant, apparently during the Industrial Revolution. Modern oral microbiotic ecosystems are markedly less diverse than historic populations, which might be contributing to chronic oral (and other) disease in postindustrial lifestyles.
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TL;DR
Sequencing ancient dental calculus from 34 European skeletons shows that the oral microbiota shifted to a disease-associated configuration with Neolithic farming, remained relatively constant through Medieval times, and became less diverse and more cariogenic after the Industrial Revolution. Modern oral microbiota are markedly less diverse than historic populations.
Key findings
- Ancient calculus preserved oral microbial signatures: it was dominated by Firmicutes (33% for the V3 region), comparable to the Human Oral Microbiome Database (37%) and modern oral samples (average 50%), and distinct from extraction blanks (6% Firmicutes, p = 0.003), environmental samples (1.6%, p < 0.001), and within ancient teeth (8%, p < 0.001). Ancient calculus also contained all 15 phyla commonly found in the modern human oral cavity, with high Actinobacteria (19%) as observed in modern calculus deposits (7%).
- The transition from hunter-gatherer to farming shifted the oral microbial community to a disease-associated configuration: hunter-gatherers displayed fewer caries- and periodontal disease-associated taxa, while farming populations had more periodontal disease-associated taxa, including P. gingivalis, Tannerella, and Treponema. Composition remained notably consistent from the Neolithic through the Medieval period.
- Modern oral environments were much less biodiverse and dominated by potentially cariogenic bacteria; the frequency of S. mutans was significantly higher in modern samples than pre-industrial agricultural samples, and modern Europeans had lower oral microbial diversity than Mesolithic or pre-Industrial Neolithic groups (p < 0.001). Random forest analysis identified Clostridiales (importance score = 0.014 ± 0.002) and Ruminococcaceae (0.0035 ± 0.0009) as predictive of hunter-gatherer versus early agriculturist communities (ratio baseline error to observed error = 3.5), and Veillonellaceae (0.021 ± 0.004), Lachnospiraceae (0.019 ± 0.007), and Actinomycetales (0.0013 ± 0.0005) as distinguishing modern from farming groups (ratio = 4.0).
- Periodontal disease-associated bacteria were relatively stable since the introduction of farming, which the authors argue indicates that although periodontal disease might contribute to pathogenesis, it is probably not a factor in the rising incidence of systemic diseases.
Methods
- The study analyzed supra- and subgingival calculus from 34 prehistoric European skeletons (11 males, 11 females, 12 unknown sex; age at death from <20 to >60 years) dating from the Mesolithic to Medieval periods, compared with modern calculus (n = 6), modern plaque (n = 13), ancient tooth samples (n = 6), and extraction blanks.
- DNA was extracted from 0.05–0.2 g of sterilized, powdered ancient calculus; PCR amplicon libraries targeted three hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA gene (V1, V3, V6) with barcoded primers, plus specific primers for Streptococcus mutans (GtfB gene) and Porphyromonas gingivalis (16S rRNA gene). Sequencing used 454 GS FLX Titanium, and analysis used QIIME 1.5.0, quality filtering, denoising, UCLUST OTU picking at 95% likeness, RDP classification, and random forest/diversity analyses.
- Of 998,575 sequences generated, about 50% were discarded after quality filtering and denoising, leaving 451,241 sequences.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: independent extractions were not possible because of the small size of samples, and commonly only one calculus deposit per individual was available for DNA analysis. The authors also attempted unsuccessfully to amplify human mtDNA from the ancient dental calculus samples.
- Evident from the text: the 16S rRNA amplicons were short (60–210 bp) and OTUs were clustered at 95% rather than the more common 97%, which may limit taxonomic resolution for closely related taxa.
- Evident from the text: the temporal comparisons rest on 34 skeletons spanning a broad period, and the paper does not report per-period sample sizes in the provided text, so the robustness of period-specific contrasts is not fully clear from the main text alone.
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Claims the paper makes
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- Findingown data
Periodontal disease-associated taxa were found across a range of ages, including the youngest individual (3-4 years old, ID 8247).
“While there is also a strong association between periodontal disease and individual age at death42, we found periodontal disease-associated taxa across a range of ages, including the youngest individual (3-4 years old, ID 8247).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
After the transition to agriculture in the early Neolithic, there was notable consistency in bacterial composition through the Medieval period (~400 years BP).
“After the transition to agriculture in the early Neolithic there was a notable consistency in the composition of bacteria through the Medieval period (~ 400 years BP) (Figure 3), in parallel with the broad similarity of food-processing technologies during these times9.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The taxa distinguishing modern oral environments from farming groups include decay-associated Veillonellaceae, Lachnospiraceae, and Actinomycetales.
“These taxa include decay-associated Veillonellaceae (importance score = 0.021 ± 0.004), in addition to Lachnospiraceae (importance score= 0.019 ± 0.007) and Actinomycetales (importance score = 0.0013 ± 0.0005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Earlier hunter-gatherer groups displayed fewer caries- and periodontal disease-associated taxa than farming groups.
“The composition of oral microbiota underwent a distinct shift with the introduction of farming in the early Neolithic (Figures 2c and d), with the earlier hunter-gatherer groups displaying fewer caries- and periodontal disease-associated taxa (Figure 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Random forest analysis revealed that only a limited number of taxa distinguished modern oral environments from farming groups in the Medieval and Neolithic periods (ratio baseline error to observed error = 4.0).
“RF analysis revealed that only a limited number of taxa distinguished modern oral environments from farming groups in the Medieval and Neolithic periods (ratio baseline error to observed error = 4.0 , Supplementary Table 9).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
V3 sequences from ancient calculus are more similar to modern dental calculus, plaque, and saliva samples than to environmental samples.
“Phylogenetic analyses of the β-diversity, which measures the number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) that are unique between the groups (Supplementary Note), confirmed the V3 sequences from ancient calculus were clearly more similar to those from modern dental calculus, plaque, and saliva samples1,2,21,31 than environmental samples34-40 (Figure 2a and b, Supplementary Fig. 4 and Supplementary”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The bacterial composition of ancient calculus samples clustered separately from sequences present within ancient teeth (p = 0.002).
“Furthermore, the bacterial composition of the ancient calculus samples clustered separately from the sequences present within the ancient teeth (Supplementary Fig. 6, p = 0.002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Modern Europeans have much lower oral microbial diversity than either Mesolithic or pre-Industrial Neolithic groups (p < 0.001).
“Overall, it is clear that modern Europeans have much lower oral microbial diversity than either Mesolithic or pre-Industrial Neolithic groups (p < 0.001, Supplementary Table 7), including fewer bacteria associated with good health (Ruminococcaceae), periodontal disease-associated taxa (e.g., Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella and Treponema) similar to early agriculturists, and a markedly higher”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The composition of oral microbiota underwent a distinct shift with the introduction of farming in the early Neolithic.
“The composition of oral microbiota underwent a distinct shift with the introduction of farming in the early Neolithic (Figures 2c and d), with the earlier hunter-gatherer groups displaying fewer caries- and periodontal disease-associated taxa (Figure 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Farming groups from the Neolithic and Medieval periods were discriminated by non-pathogenic taxa such as Clostridiales incertae sedis and decay-associated Veillonellaceae.
“Farming groups from the Neolithic and Medieval periods were discriminated by both non-pathogenic taxa such as Clostridiales incertae sedis (importance score = 0.014 ± 0.003) and decay-associated Veillonellaceae (importance score= 0.012 ± 0.0038).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Ancient dental calculus preserves a detailed genetic record of past oral microbiota over thousands of years.
“Here, we show that calcified dental plaque (dental calculus) on ancient teeth preserves a detailed genetic record throughout this period.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted
“We have shown that dental calculus from samples that are thousands of years old preserve representative and informative microbial signatures of past human-associated microbiota.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted
- Findingown data
Farming populations displayed more periodontal disease-associated taxa (P. gingivalis, Tannerella, and Treponema) than hunter-gatherers.
“Farming populations also displayed more periodontal disease-associated taxa, including P. gingivalis, Tannerella and Treponema, than hunter-gatherers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Random forest analysis identified Clostridia taxa (Clostridiales and Ruminococcaceae) as predictive of hunter-gatherer microbial communities compared to early agriculturists (ratio baseline error to observed error = 3.5).
“RF revealed that Clostridia taxa, such as Clostridiales (importance score = 0.014 ± 0.002) and non-pathogenic oral microbial family Ruminococcaceae (importance score = 0.0035 ± 0.0009), were predictive of hunter-gatherer microbial communities compared to early agriculturists (ratio baseline error to observed error = 3.5, Supplementary Table 8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The frequency of S. mutans is significantly higher in modern samples than in pre-industrial, agricultural samples.
“Notably, the frequency of S. mutans is significantly higher in modern samples than pre-industrial, agricultural samples (Figure 3b, Supplementary Note), indicating that caries-associated bacteria have only become dominant after Medieval times.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The abundance of periodontal disease-associated bacteria has been relatively stable since the introduction of farming.
“However, whilst the frequency of these systemic diseases has risen over the last few decades25, our data show that the abundance of periodontal disease-associated bacteria has been relatively stable since the introduction of farming (e.g., Figure 3, P. gingivalis).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Caries-associated bacteria have only become dominant after Medieval times.
“Notably, the frequency of S. mutans is significantly higher in modern samples than pre-industrial, agricultural samples (Figure 3b, Supplementary Note), indicating that caries-associated bacteria have only become dominant after Medieval times.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The DNA sequences from ancient calculus samples are not derived from contamination in the post-mortem environment.
“Overall, these results strongly suggest that the DNA sequences from the ancient calculus samples are not derived from contamination in the post-mortem environment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Over the past few hundred years, the human mouth has become a substantially less-biodiverse ecosystem.
“Perhaps more importantly, the decline in overall oral microbial diversity indicates that over the past few hundred years, the human mouth has become a substantially less-biodiverse ecosystem.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The modern oral environment is likely to be less resilient to perturbations such as dietary imbalances or invasion by pathogenic bacterial species.
“Therefore, the modern oral environment is likely to be less resilient to perturbations48 in the form of dietary imbalances or invasion49 by pathogenic bacterial species.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [48] Petchey, O. & Gaston, K. Effects on ecosystem resilience of biodiversity, extinctions, and the structure of regional species pools. Theor. Ecol. 2, 177–187 (2009). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [49] Loreau, M. et al. A new look at the relationship between diversity and stability. in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning. Synthesis and Perspectives (eds. Loreau, M., Naeem, S. & Inchausti, P.) 79–91 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002). source
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- Premisecitation
In human-associated microbiota and macroecological contexts, higher phylogenetic diversity is associated with greater ecosystem resilience and productivity.
“In both a human-associated microbiota43-45 and macroecological46,47 context, higher phylogenetic diversity is associated with greater ecosystem resilience and productivity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [43] Bailey, M.T. et al. Stressor exposure disrupts commensal microbial populations in the intestines and leads to increased colonization by Citrobacter rodentium. Infect. Immun. 78, 1509–1519 (2010). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [44] Lawley, T.D. et al. Antibiotic treatment of Clostridium difficile carrier mice triggers a supershedder state, spore-mediated transmission, and severe disease in immunocompromised hosts. Infect. Immun. 77, 3661–3669 (2009). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [45] Lozupone, C.A., Stombaugh, J.I., Gordon, J.I., Jansson, J.K. & Knight, R. Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota. Nature 489, 220–230 (2012). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [46] Cadotte, M., Dinnage, R. & Tilman, G.D. Phylogenetic diversity promotes ecosystem stability. Ecology 93, S223–S233 (2012). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [47] Zhang, Y., Chen, H.Y.H. & Reich, P.B. Forest productivity increases with evenness, species richness and trait variation: a global meta-analysis. J. Ecol. 100, 742–749 (2012). source
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- Interpretationreasoning
The change to dominance of caries-associated bacteria is most likely associated with the onset of the Industrial Revolution.
“This change is most likely associated with the onset of the Industrial Revolution which began some 200 years ago and represents the largest change in food production and processing technology since the shift to farming9.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Cordain, L. et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81, 341–354 (2005). source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The increased consumption of domesticated cereals beginning with the Neolithic was associated with a marked increase in prevalence of dental calculus and oral pathology.
“The increased consumption of domesticated cereals (wheat and barley in the Near East) beginning with the Neolithic was associated with a marked increase in prevalence of dental calculus and oral pathology20.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] Aufderheide, A.C., Rodriguez-Martin, C. & Langsjoen, O. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998).
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Dental calculus is ubiquitous in both present-day and ancient human populations.
“Dental calculus is ubiquitous in both present-day and ancient human populations11”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] Scott, G.R. & Poulson, S.R. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes of human dental calculus: a potentially new non-destructive proxy for paleodietary analysis. J. Archaeol. Sci. 39, 1388–1393 (2012). source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Although periodontal disease might contribute to pathogenesis, it is probably not a factor in the rising incidence of systemic diseases.
“This indicates that although periodontal disease might contribute to pathogenesis, it is probably not a factor in the rising incidence of these systemic diseases.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Microscopic analysis has shown that dental calculus accurately preserves bacterial morphology over millennia.
“microscopic analysis has shown that it accurately preserves bacterial morphology over millennia12-14.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [12] Lilley, J., Stroud, G. & Brothwell, D. The Jewish burial ground at Jewbury. in The Archaeology of York Vol. 12 (eds. Addyman, P.V. & Kinsler, V.A.) 291–578 (Council for British Archaeology, York, UK, 1994).
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [13] Preus, H.R., Marvik, O.J., Selvig, K.A. & Bennike, P. Ancient bacterial DNA (aDNA) in dental calculus from archaeological human remains. J. Archaeol. Sci. 38, 1827–1831 (2011). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [14] Vandermeersch, B. et al. Middle Palaeolithic dental bacteria from Kebara, Israel. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 319, 727–731 (1994).
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Industrially processed flour and sugar were introduced around 1850.
“Two of the greatest dietary shifts in human evolution involved the adoption of carbohydrate-rich Neolithic (farming) diets6,7 (beginning ~10,000 years BP6,8), and the more recent advent of industrially processed flour and sugar (~1850)9.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Cordain, L. et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81, 341–354 (2005). source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Food-processing technologies were broadly similar during the Neolithic through Medieval times.
“in parallel with the broad similarity of food-processing technologies during these times9.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Cordain, L. et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81, 341–354 (2005). source
Not checked in the free run.
- May combine two claims. 15
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe Firmicutes percentage in ancient calculus is significantly higher than in extraction blanks (6%, p = 0.003), environmental samples (1.6%, p < 0.001), and ancient teeth (8%, p < 0.001).
“Again, this was clearly distinguishable from the bacterial sequences obtained from extraction blanks (6% Firmicutes, p = 0.003), environmental samples (1.6% Firmicutes, p < 0.001) and within the ancient teeth (8% Firmicutes, p < 0.001), which were all dominated by Proteobacteria (73% p = 0.2, 56% p < 0.001 and 31% p = 0.005, respectively).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe bacterial composition of ancient dental calculus is similar to modern oral samples and the Human Oral Microbiome Database, but markedly distinct from laboratory reagents, environmental samples, and ancient teeth.
“At the phylum level, the bacterial composition of ancient calculus was similar to modern oral samples and sequences from the Human Oral Microbiome Database (HOMD)30, but markedly distinct from laboratory reagents (extraction blanks), environmental samples (soils, sediments and water), and within the ancient teeth themselves (Figure 1, Supplementary Fig. 2 and Supplementary Note).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAncient dental calculus was dominated by Firmicutes (33% for the V3 region), comparable to percentages in the Human Oral Microbiome Database (37%) and modern oral samples (average 50%).
“The archaeological calculus was dominated by Firmicutes (33% for the V3 region, which was the most phylogenetically informative fragment, see Supplementary Note), which is comparable to percentages found in both the HOMD (37%), and modern oral samples (average 50%)1,2,21,31.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataModern oral samples have fewer bacteria associated with good health (Ruminococcaceae), periodontal disease-associated taxa similar to early agriculturists, and a markedly higher abundance of pathogens such as Streptococcus mutans.
“Overall, it is clear that modern Europeans have much lower oral microbial diversity than either Mesolithic or pre-Industrial Neolithic groups (p < 0.001, Supplementary Table 7), including fewer bacteria associated with good health (Ruminococcaceae), periodontal disease-associated taxa (e.g., Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella and Treponema) similar to early agriculturists, and a markedly higher”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataSimilar patterns of similarity to modern oral samples were observed for V1 and V6 sequences.
“Similar patterns were observed for sequences from V1 and V6 (Supplementary Fig. 5, Supplementary Note).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataToday's oral environment is much less biodiverse and dominated by potentially cariogenic bacteria such as S. mutans.
“In contrast, today’s oral environment is much less biodiverse and dominated by potentially cariogenic bacteria (Figure 3a and b, e.g., S. mutans, Supplementary Figs. 7-9 and Supplementary Table 7).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAncient dental calculus samples contained all 15 phyla commonly found in the modern human oral cavity, with high percentages of Actinobacteria (19%) as observed in modern calculus deposits (7%).
“In addition to Firmicutes, the ancient dental calculus samples contained all 15 phyla commonly found in the modern human oral cavity30, with high percentages of Actinobacteria (19%) as is observed in modern calculus deposits (7%).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe Industrial Revolution saw the production of refined grain and concentrated sugar, generating mono- and disaccharides that are the main substrates for microbial fermentation that lowers plaque pH and causes enamel demineralization.
“The Industrial Revolution saw the production of refined grain and concentrated sugar from processed sugar beet and cane9, generating mono- and disaccharides, which are the main substrates for microbial fermentation that lowers plaque pH and cause enamel demineralization26.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [9] Cordain, L. et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81, 341–354 (2005). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [26] Marsh, P.D. Microbiology of dental plaque biofilms and their role in oral health and caries. Dent. Clin. North Am. 54, 441–454 (2010). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe shift in oral microbiota with farming is consistent with skeletal evidence of marked increases in periodontal disease following the transition to an agricultural diet, suggesting a major impact on the human oral ecosystem around this time.
“This is consistent with skeletal evidence showing marked increases in periodontal disease41 following the transition to an agricultural diet, suggesting a major impact on the human oral ecosystem around this time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [41] Kerr, N.W. Prevalence and natural history of periodontal disease in prehistoric Scots (pre-900 AD). J. Periodontal Res. 33, 131–137 (1998). source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationOral bacteria are associated with many systemic diseases including arthritis, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes.
“Notably, oral bacteria are also associated with many systemic diseases including arthritis28, cardiovascular disease3 and diabetes4, in addition to diseases of the oral cavity1,2.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [28] Mercado, F.B., Marshall, R.I., Klestov, A.C. & Bartold, P.M. Relationship between rheumatoid arthritis and periodontitis. J. Periodontol. 72, 779–787 (2001). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [3] Davé, S. & Van Dyke, T. The link between periodontal disease and cardiovascular disease is probably inflammation. Oral Dis. 14, 95–101 (2008). source
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- cites [4] Grossi, S.G. & Genco, R.J. Periodontal disease and diabetes mellitus: a two-way relationship. Ann. Periodontol. 3, 51–61 (1998). source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDental caries and periodontal disease were rare in pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer societies and early hominins.
“These oral diseases include dental caries (tooth decay)1 and periodontal disease (an infection causing damage to the supporting connective tissues of the tooth and resorption of bone)21, both of which were rare in pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer societies20 and early hominins22.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [20] Aufderheide, A.C., Rodriguez-Martin, C. & Langsjoen, O. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998).
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [22] Grine, F.E., Gwinnett, A.J. & Oaks, J.H. Early hominid dental pathology: interproximal caries in 1.5 million-year-old Paranthropus robustus from Swartkrans. Arch. Oral Biol. 35, 381–386 (1990). source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCommensal microbiota comprise the majority of cells in the body and play a key role in human health.
“Commensal microbiota comprise the majority of cells in the body and play a key role in human health1-5,10.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [1] Aas, J.A. et al. Bacteria of dental caries in primary and permanent teeth in children and young adults. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46, 1407–1417 (2008). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [2] Aas, J.A., Paster, B.J., Stokes, L.N., Olsen, I. & Dewhirst, F.E. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 5721–5732 (2005). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [3] Davé, S. & Van Dyke, T. The link between periodontal disease and cardiovascular disease is probably inflammation. Oral Dis. 14, 95–101 (2008). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [4] Grossi, S.G. & Genco, R.J. Periodontal disease and diabetes mellitus: a two-way relationship. Ann. Periodontol. 3, 51–61 (1998). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [5] Human Microbiome Project Consortium. Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature 486, 207–214 (2012). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [10] Savage, D.C. Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 31, 107–133 (1977). source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe frequency of systemic diseases has risen over the last few decades.
“However, whilst the frequency of these systemic diseases has risen over the last few decades25, our data show that the abundance of periodontal disease-associated bacteria has been relatively stable since the introduction of farming (e.g., Figure 3, P. gingivalis).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] Hujoel, P. Dietary carbohydrates and dental-systemic diseases. J. Dent. Res. 88, 490–502 (2009). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationBacteria in calculus become locked in a crystalline matrix similar to bone, with deposits occurring both above and below the gum.
“Bacteria in calculus become locked in a crystalline matrix similar to bone16 (Supplementary Figure 1), with deposits occurring both above and below the gum or gingiva (supra- and subgingivally)17.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [16] Jin, Y. & Yip, H.K. Supragingival calculus: formation and control. Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 13, 426–441 (2002). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [17] Lieverse, A.R. Diet and the aetiology of dental calculus. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 9, 219–232 (1999). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataMajor changes in carbohydrate intake in human history appear to have impacted the ecosystem of the mouth, opening up pathological niches for periodontal disease in the early Neolithic and caries in the recent past.
“Major changes in carbohydrate intake in human history appear to have impacted the ecosystem of the mouth, opening up pathological niches for periodontal disease in the early Neolithic and caries in the recent past.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationDental calculus develops when dental plaque becomes mineralised with calcium phosphate.
“Dental calculus develops when dental plaque, an extremely dense bacterial biofilm15, becomes mineralised with calcium phosphate16.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [15] Socransky, S.S. & Haffajee, A.D. Dental biofilms: difficult therapeutic targets. Periodontol. 2000 28, 12–55 (2002). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [16] Jin, Y. & Yip, H.K. Supragingival calculus: formation and control. Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 13, 426–441 (2002). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationOral bacteria are transferred vertically from primary caregiver(s) in early childhood and horizontally between family members later in life.
“In addition, oral bacteria are transferred vertically from the primary caregiver(s) in early childhood18 and horizontally between family members later in life18,19, making archaeological dental calculus a potentially unique means of tracing population structure, movement and admixture between ancient cultures, as well as the spread of diseases.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [18] Asikainen, S., Chen, C. & Slots, J. Likelihood of transmitting Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis in families with periodontitis. Oral Microbiol. Immunol. 11, 387–394 (1996). source
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- cites [19] Van Steenbergen, T.J., Menard, C., Tijhof, C.J., Mouton, C. & De Graaff, J. Comparison of three molecular typing methods in studies of transmission of Porphyromonas gingivalis. J. Med. Microbiol. 39, 416–421 (1993). source
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCaries and periodontal disease are polymicrobial, plaque-mediated infections thought to result from perturbation of a healthy, ecologically balanced oral biofilm that can occur from dietary changes such as increased consumption of fermentable carbohydrates.
“Caries and periodontal disease are both polymicrobial, plaque-mediated infections, thought to result from perturbation of a healthy, ecologically balanced oral biofilm23,24 that can occur from dietary changes, such as the increased consumption of fermentable carbohydrates25,26.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [23] Marsh, P.D. Sugar, fluoride, pH and microbial homeostasis in dental plaque. Proc. Finn. Dent. Soc. 87, 515–525 (1991).
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- cites [24] Marsh, P.D. Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology 149, 279–294 (2003). source
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- cites [25] Hujoel, P. Dietary carbohydrates and dental-systemic diseases. J. Dent. Res. 88, 490–502 (2009). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [26] Marsh, P.D. Microbiology of dental plaque biofilms and their role in oral health and caries. Dent. Clin. North Am. 54, 441–454 (2010). source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe adoption of carbohydrate-rich Neolithic farming diets began approximately 10,000 years BP.
“Two of the greatest dietary shifts in human evolution involved the adoption of carbohydrate-rich Neolithic (farming) diets6,7 (beginning ~10,000 years BP6,8), and the more recent advent of industrially processed flour and sugar (~1850)9.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [6] Braidwood, R.J., Howe, B. & Reed, C.A. The Iranian Prehistoric Project: new problems arise as more is learned of the first attempts at food production and settled village life. Science 133, 2008–2010 (1961). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [7] Oelzea, V.M. et al. Early Neolithic diet and animal husbandry: stable isotope evidence from three Linearbandkeramik (LBK) sites in Central Germany. J. Archaeol. Sci. 38, 270–279 (2011). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [8] Childe, V.G. The Dawn of European Civilisation (Kegan Paul, London, 1925).
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe impact of farming on the oral ecosystem is thought to be caused by increased amounts of soft carbohydrate foods compared with hunter-gatherer diets.
“This is thought to be caused by increased amounts of soft carbohydrate foods compared with hunter-gatherer diets26.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [26] Marsh, P.D. Microbiology of dental plaque biofilms and their role in oral health and caries. Dent. Clin. North Am. 54, 441–454 (2010). source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe Industrial Revolution began some 200 years ago and represents the largest change in food production and processing technology since the shift to farming.
“This change is most likely associated with the onset of the Industrial Revolution which began some 200 years ago and represents the largest change in food production and processing technology since the shift to farming9.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Cordain, L. et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81, 341–354 (2005). source
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
Detailed genetic records from commensal bacteria have not yet been recovered from the archaeological record.
“However, their evolution remains poorly understood, and detailed genetic records from commensal bacteria have yet to be recovered from the archaeological record.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The impacts of evolutionary changes in human diet and culture on commensal microbiota remain almost unknown.
“yet the impacts of evolutionary changes in human diet and culture on commensal microbiota remain almost unknown.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Changes in the oral microbiota during the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition can be observed in preserved dental calculus samples from the Mesolithic period, indicating a distinct microbial profile from dental calculus samples collected in the Neolithic, Bronze Age, Medieval and modern times.
“Changes in the oral microbiota during the Mesolithic−Neolithic transition can be observed in preserved dental calculus samples from the Mesolithic period, indicating a distinct microbial profile from dental calculus samples collected in the Neolithic, Bronze Age, Medieval and modern times.”
From A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis (2022) · cites this paper as [37]
Microbial profiles of plaque samples from the Neolithic period are similar in terms of proportions and species of microbes present, despite dietary changes over time.
“It has been observed that the microbial profiles of plaque samples from the Neolithic period are similar in terms of proportions and species of microbes present, despite dietary changes over time [37].”
From A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis (2022) · cites this paper as [37]
Oral bacteria find their nutrient sources in these body fluids and work to break down the substrates they contain to obtain nutrition sources.
“Oral bacteria find their nutrient sources in these body fluids and work to break down the substrates they contain to obtain nutrition sources [37].”
From A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis (2022) · cites this paper as [37]
Changes in diet were paralleled by pathologic changes to the oral microbiota, including greater representation of acid-producing and acid-tolerant organisms and periodontal pathogens.
“Such changes in diet were paralleled by pathologic changes to the oral microbiota, including greater representation of acid‐producing and acid‐tolerant organisms and periodontal pathogens.17, 22, 24, 25”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
Recent data indicate that the oral microbiome influences the dietary preferences of its host.
“While diet influences the oral microbiome,22, 24, 26 recent data indicate that the oral microbiome influences the dietary preferences of its host.”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
The composition of the oral microbiome is shaped throughout life by host genetics, maternal transmission, and environmental factors such as dietary habits, oral hygiene practice, medications, stress levels, and systemic factors.
“The composition of the oral microbiome is shaped throughout life by factors including host genetics and maternal transmission, as well as by environmental factors, such as dietary habits, oral hygiene practice, medications, stress levels, and systemic factors (Figure 1).24, 129”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
The distinction between the microbial profiles found in Mesolithic and post-Mesolithic eras suggests that increased carbohydrate consumption introduced profound effects on the composition of the oral microbiota that have been maintained over time.
“The distinction between the microbial profiles found in Mesolithic and post‐Mesolithic eras suggests that increased carbohydrate consumption introduced profound effects on the composition of the oral microbiota that have been maintained over time.24”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
Changes in the proportions and representation of oral microbial species at the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition are evident in samples of preserved dental calculus from the Mesolithic that demonstrate a compositionally distinct microbial profile from samples of dental calculus collected from the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Medieval periods, and modern times.
“Changes in the proportions and representation of oral microbial species at the Mesolithic‐Neolithic transition are evident in samples of preserved dental calculus from the Mesolithic that demonstrate a compositionally distinct microbial profile from samples of dental calculus collected from the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Medieval periods, and modern times.24”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
Processed carbohydrate consumption has been associated with increased incidence of periodontal disease.
“Moreover, processed carbohydrate consumption has been associated with increased incidence of periodontal disease.8, 24, 26, 181, 188, 251”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
In the Hadza study, women in village settings consuming a primarily agricultural diet had significantly greater incidences of caries and periodontal disease than women in a bush setting consuming a wild-food diet.
“women who lived in village settings and consumed a primarily agricultural diet had significantly greater incidences of caries and periodontal disease than those who lived in a bush setting and consumed a wild‐food diet including legumes, wild game, berries, and uncultivated tubers.”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
The transition from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to farming societies is associated with a decline in oral health and several additional disease states, including cardiovascular disease, inflammatory bowel diseases, rheumatic diseases, many cancers, and obesity.
“The transition from hunter‐gatherer lifestyles to farming societies is associated with a decline in oral health as well as several additional disease states, including (but not limited to) cardiovascular disease, inflammatory bowel diseases, rheumatic diseases, many cancers, and obesity.”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
Population genomics studies predict that the S mutans population started growing exponentially 10,000 years ago, around the advent of human agriculture.
“population genomics studies predict that the S mutans population started growing exponentially 10,000 years ago, around the advent of human agriculture.”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
An early dietary shift away from plant-based foods toward animal tissues likely initiated bacterial depauperation, which has been dramatically accelerated in the last approximately 200 years with the widespread introduction of refined flour and sugar into diets.
“Early dietary shift away from plant-based foods toward animal tissues likely initiated this bacterial depauperation, however this has been dramatically accelerated in the last ~200 years (i.e., since the Industrial Revolution) with the widespread introduction of refined flour and sugar into our diets (Adler et al., 2013).”
From Viral Infections, the Microbiome, and Probiotics (2021) · cites this paper as Adler et al., 2013
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Dahlén, G., Konradsson, K., Eriksson, S., Teanpaisan, R., Piwat, S., & Carlén, A. (2010) · Acta Odontologica Scandinavica · doi:10.3109/00016351003745514 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
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Viral Infections, the Microbiome, and Probiotics
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- Authors
- Adler, C. J., Dobney, K., Weyrich, L. S., Kaidonis, J., Walker, A. W., Haak, W., Bradshaw, C. J. A., Townsend, G., Sołtysiak, A., Alt, K. W., Parkhill, J., & Cooper, A.
- Affiliations
- The University of Adelaide (AU)
- University of Aberdeen (GB)
- Wellcome Sanger Institute (GB)
- South Australian Research and Development Institute (AU)
- University of Warsaw (PL)
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Cooper, Alan
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Genetics
- Published
- 2013-02-17
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 450-455
- ISSN
- 1061-4036 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-1718
- PMC
- PMC3996550
- OpenAlex
- W2024189200
- Semantic Scholar
- 4247d2236f97f690c3ab8d2c6008f1f082e1f49a
- Cited by
- 621
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 63 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 59 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 49 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 17
- FWCI
- 60.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Genetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- Aberdeen University Research Archive (Aberdeen University) (submittedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (WT092799/Z/10/Z, 076964, WT076964, WT 098051, WT092799MA)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › Periodontics › Oral microbiology and periodontitis research
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Paleopathology and ancient diseases
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Forensic and Genetic Research
- Keywords
- oral microbiota, dental calculus, ancient DNA, Neolithic transition, Industrial Revolution, hunter-gatherers, cariogenic bacteria, dietary change, microbial diversity, sugar consumption, oral diseases
- MeSH terms
- Archaeology, Dental Plaque, Diet, Biological Evolution, Humans, Industry, Mouth Mucosa, Metagenome, High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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