Long-range enhancer–promoter contacts in gene expression control
Abstract
Spatiotemporal gene expression programmes are orchestrated by transcriptional enhancers, which are key regulatory DNA elements that engage in physical contacts with their target-gene promoters, often bridging considerable genomic distances. Recent progress in genomics, genome editing and microscopy methodologies have enabled the genome-wide mapping of enhancer-promoter contacts and their functional dissection. In this Review, we discuss novel concepts on how enhancer-promoter interactions are established and maintained, how the 3D architecture of mammalian genomes both facilitates and constrains enhancer-promoter contacts, and the role they play in gene expression control during normal development and disease.
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Of the multitudes of enhancers in a locus, not all provide input to every promoter.
“It is clear from both genome-wide profiling and perturbation studies that, of the multitudes of enhancers in a locus, not all of them provide input to every promoter [430, 431].”
From Transcriptional enhancers and their communication with gene promoters (2021) · cites this paper as [431]
Promoter-interacting regions identified using these approaches typically show enrichment for enhancer-associated chromatin marks and disease-associated variants, and in a number of cases their target genes have been validated directly.
“Promoter-interacting regions identified using these approaches typically show enrichment for enhancer-associated chromatin marks and disease-associated variants, and in a number of cases their target genes have been validated directly (reviewed in [431]).”
From Transcriptional enhancers and their communication with gene promoters (2021) · cites this paper as [431]
During the search of a target promoter, enhancers meet other genes that are not activated by this enhancer.
“During the “search” of a target promoter (regardless of the “searching mechanism”), enhancers meet other genes that, however, are not activated by this enhancer [21,128,129].”
From Enhancer Function in the 3D Genome (2023) · cites this paper as [128]
Chromatin loops enable interactions between enhancers and promoters enabling fine control of gene expression, in addition to regulation mediated by transcription factors and other epigenetic modifications.
“Chromatin loops enable interactions between enhancers and promoters enabling fine control of gene expression, in addition to the regulation mediated by transcription factors and other epigenetic modifications”
From Neuronal DNA double-strand breaks lead to genome structural variations and 3D genome disruption in neurodegeneration (2023) · cites this paper as [27]
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Chromatin Potential Identified by Shared Single-Cell Profiling of RNA and Chromatin
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BackgroundRoles of transposable elements in the regulation of mammalian transcription
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Epigenetic regulation of T cell exhaustion
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BackgroundThe Mediator complex as a master regulator of transcription by RNA polymerase II
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Cohesin and CTCF control the dynamics of chromosome folding
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Enhancer redundancy in development and disease
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Evaluating Enhancer Function and Transcription
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“Importantly, CTCF-binding sites at TAD boundaries can serve as insulators that restrict enhancer interactions to target genes within the same domain (72, 135, 139).”
BackgroundInfluentialMcCord, R. P., Kaplan, N., & Giorgetti, L. (2020) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2019.12.021 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Precise integration of large DNA sequences in plant genomes using PrimeRoot editors
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Cohesin and condensin extrude DNA loops in a cell cycle-dependent manner
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“TADs are composed of chromatin loops that have been hypothesized to regulate gene expression by spatially restricting contacts between genes and regulatory elements (Smith et al., 2016; Lupiáñez et al., 2015; Ren et al., 2017; Schoenfelder and Fraser, 2019).”
BackgroundSequence determinants of human gene regulatory elements
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ChIP-seq of plasma cell-free nucleosomes identifies gene expression programs of the cells of origin
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Self-citationLoss of Extreme Long-Range Enhancers in Human Neural Crest Drives a Craniofacial Disorder
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BackgroundSingle-cell ATAC sequencing analysis: From data preprocessing to hypothesis generation
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BackgroundCell-type-specific 3D epigenomes in the developing human cortex
Song, M., Pebworth, M.-P., Yang, X., Abnousi, A., Fan, C., Wen, J., Rosen, J. D., Choudhary, M. N. K., Cui, X., Jones, I. R., et al. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2825-4 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
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BackgroundEnhancer release and retargeting activates disease-susceptibility genes
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“Chromatin loops enable interactions between enhancers and promoters enabling fine control of gene expression, in addition to the regulation mediated by transcription factors and other epigenetic modifications.(27,96) To investigate if the chromatin loop dysregulation in Step 1 and Step 2 neurons is associated with gen…”
BackgroundPhyllosphere Microorganisms: Sources, Drivers, and Their Interactions with Plant Hosts
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Promoter-interacting expression quantitative trait loci are enriched for functional genetic variants
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BackgroundVenom Systems as Models for Studying the Origin and Regulation of Evolutionary Novelties
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BackgroundIncreased enhancer–promoter interactions during developmental enhancer activation in mammals
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Transcription-dependent cohesin repositioning rewires chromatin loops in cellular senescence
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“One important role of TADs in genome function is their role in regulation of gene expression by promoting and constraining long-range enhancer-promoter interactions (Schoenfelder and Fraser 2019).”
InfluentialTranscriptional enhancers and their communication with gene promoters
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BackgroundMethodInfluentialDiscovery and validation of human genomic safe harbor sites for gene and cell therapies
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“Cell type enhancers play an essential role in controlling cell-typespecific gene expression programs by engaging in physical contact [28].”
BackgroundResultThe impact of DNA methylation on CTCF-mediated 3D genome organization
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“Unlike TADs, these loops can vary tremendously between cell types and are important for determining cell identity 10 .”
- Authors
- Schoenfelder, S., & Fraser, P.
- Affiliations
- Babraham Institute (GB)
- Florida State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schoenfelder, Stefan
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Genetics
- Published
- 2019-05-13
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 437-455
- ISSN
- 1471-0056 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0064
- OpenAlex
- W2945038365
- Semantic Scholar
- d851d5037a1a04033beae17bfcd824e8c27b304e
- Cited by
- 1,102
- References
- 218
- Citations by year
- 2026: 118 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 162 · 2023: 170 · 2022: 163 · 2021: 184 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 32 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 11.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Nature Reviews Genetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council (MR/L007150/1, MR/T016787/1)
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/J004480/1)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (U01HL129971)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Chromatin Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Chromatin Remodeling and Cancer
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Cancer-related molecular mechanisms research
- Keywords
- enhancer-promoter interactions, enhancers, 3D genome organization, chromatin looping, gene expression regulation, developmental gene regulation, disease
- MeSH terms
- Gene Editing, Animals, Enhancer Elements, Genetic, Humans, Mammals, Promoter Regions, Genetic, Gene Expression, Genome, Genomics
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