Sustainable remediation with an electroactive biochar system: mechanisms and perspectives

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Milder redox reactions including formation of surface-confined reactive complexes, singlet oxygenation, and direct electron transfer can be introduced with specific protocols, minimizing undesirable carbon oxidation and enhancing reaction sustainability.

“It is worth noting that milder redox reactions including the formation of surface-confined reactive complexes, singlet oxygenation, and direct electron transfer can be properly introduced with specific protocols, thus minimizing undesirable carbon oxidation and enhancing reaction sustainability.”

May combine two claims.

Application of active metal-functionalized biochars unavoidably induces metal leaching into the environment, potentially detrimental to clean water sources and requiring pollution control.

“while the application of active metal-functionalized biochars unavoidably induces metal leaching into the environment, which is potentially detrimental to clean water source and requires prudent pollution control. 20,65”

• cites [20] sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [65] sourceNot checked yet

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EPFRs with unpaired electrons possess reactivity to directly degrade inorganic or organic pollutants or stimulate generation of ROS.

“EPFRs with unpaired electrons are validated to possess reactivity to either directly degrade inorganic/organic pollutants or stimulate the generation of ROS.56”

• cites [56] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The foregoing electron-mediated scenarios on biochar are partially understood and poorly interconnected, especially for potential pivotal synergistic effects among each critical electroactive component within biochar matrices.

“The foregoing electronmediated scenarios on biochar are partially understood and poorly interconnected, especially for the potential pivotal synergistic effects among each critical electroactive component within biochar matrices.”

May combine two claims.

Biochar surface area, pore distribution and volume, and hydrophobicity are still limited compared with activated carbon or nanocarbon materials.

“Irrespective of the convenient accessibility and modification for biochar, its surface area, pore distribution and volume, as well as hydrophobicity of biochar surface are still limited when compared with activated carbon or nanocarbon materials.52”

• cites [52] sourceNot checked yet

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The mechanistic route is predominantly controlled by one-electron transfer from EPFRs towards H2O2 molecules, confirmed by a linear correlation among EPFRs density, •OH characteristic signal intensity, and pollutant degradation rate constant.

“The mechanistic route was predominantly controlled by one-electron transfer from EPFRs towards H2O2 molecules, which was confirmed by a linear correlation among EPFRs density, • OH characteristic signal intensity, as well as pollutant degradation rate constant.”

• cites [128] sourceNot checked yet

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Both introduction of metal contents (Ni, Cu, Zn, Fe) and phenolic compounds (hydroquinone, catechol, phenol) favour EPFRs formation in biochar.

“Fang et al. found both the introduction of metal contents (i.e., Ni, Cu, Zn, and Fe) and phenolic compounds (i.e., hydroquinone, catechol, and phenol) favour EPFRs formation in biochar.”

• cites [89] sourceNot checked yet

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Positively charged ketone groups react with another peroxide molecule to produce distinct radicals, and further regain charges to restore ketonic C=O groups from hydroquinone-type groups and fulfil redox cycles of geobattery theory.

“The positively charged ketone groups would react with another peroxide molecule to produce distinct radicals (e.g., peroxymonosulfate radical and peroxydisulfate radical), and further regains charges to restore the ketonic C=O groups from hydroquinone-type groups and fulfil the redox cycles of geobattery theory.”

May combine two claims.

ROS generation pathways primarily come from EPFRs-induced oxygen molecule activation to produce •O2- and •OH, while both radicals consume free electrons on residual EPFRs to produce more •OH.

“The proposed ROS generation pathways primarily came from the EPFRs-induced oxygen molecules activation to produce • O2 -and • OH, while both these two radicals would consume free electrons on residual EPFRs to produce more • OH.”

• cites [89] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

EPFRs consumption on corn straw biochar reduces Cr(VI) in solution and is accompanied by formation of quinone groups, suggesting a reversible electron donor-acceptor scenario of different RAMs on biochars.

“Zhao et al. demonstrated similar EPFRs consumption on corn straw biochar to reduce Cr(VI) in solution as accompanied by the formation of quinone groups, suggesting the reversible electron donor-acceptor scenario of different RAMs on biochars.94”

• cites [94] sourceNot checked yet

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Carbon-centred EPFRs in biochar have reductive capacity, enabling simultaneous Cr(VI) adsorption-reduction via direct electron donation without additional peroxide addition.

“This reductive capacity of carbon-centred EPFRs in biochar was also claimed by Zhong et al., as the simultaneous Cr(VI) adsorption-reduction could be achieved via direct electron donation without additional peroxide addition.56”

• cites [56] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The phenolic -OH/ketonic C=O redox cycle cannot be readily achieved and theoretically presents easily consumable properties susceptible to redox reactions.

“Nevertheless, the phenolic -OH/ketonic C=O redox cycle cannot be readily achieved and it theoretically presents easily consumable properties susceptible to redox reactions.”

May combine two claims.

Low-temperature biochar (200-350 C) has high density of oxygen-containing groups, while types and amounts of functional groups can be tailored with moderate temperature (350-700 C).

“Low-temperature biochar (200-350 °C) was observed with high density of oxygen-containing groups, while types and amounts of functional groups could be tailored with moderate temperature level (350-700 °C).38”

• cites [38] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

EPFRs can be classified into three classes with Landé g-factor as indicator: carbon-centred type (g<2.003), carbon-centred type with adjacent oxygen atom (2.003<g<2.004), and oxygen-centred type (2.004<g).

“Usually, EPFRs can be classified into three different classes with Landé g-factor as indicator, namely carbon-centred type (g-factor < 2.003), carbon-centred type with an adjacent oxygen atom (2.003 < g-factor < 2.004), and oxygen-centred type (2.004 < g-factor).125”

• cites [125] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Overdose of metal contents has a negative effect on density of EPFRs, and consummation of EPFRs is attributed to self-reduction reactions of metal ion centres and EPFRs.

“The overdose of metal contents presented a negative effect on density of EPFRs, and the consummation of EPFRs was attributed to the self-reduction reactions of metal ion centres and EPFRs.”

• cites [89] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Formation of EPFRs during hydrothermal process is time-dependent, and density decreases with increase of residence time.

“The formation of EPFRs during hydrothermal process was also time-dependent, and the density decreases with the increase of residence time.”

• cites [87] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Types of EPFRs in biochar vary with different preparation conditions and can be manipulated with controlled conditions to meet specific demands.

“The types of EPFRs in biochar varied with different preparation conditions and could be manipulated with controlled conditions to meet specific demands.”

May combine two claims.

Geobattery theory on natural pyrogenic carbon holds that phenolic -OH and quinoid C=O can undergo electron-mediated transformation, indicating the electron-donating ability of phenolic -OH.

“Recently, the discovery of 'geobattery' theory (reversible functional interspecies conversion) on natural pyrogenic carbon, whereby phenolic -OH and quinoid C=O can undergo electronmediated transformation, further indicates the electron donating ability of phenolic -OH.105,106”

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• cites [106] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Reactive species generated in CO2 activation are mild and sustainable, such as singlet oxygen, with greater selectivity to electron-rich organics and less surface oxidation on carbon matrices compared to conventional radical species.

“Intriguingly, the reactive species generated in this process were mild and sustainable species such as singlet oxygen ( 1 O2) with greater selectivity to electron-rich organics and less surface oxidation on carbon matrices as compared to the conventional radical species (i.e., • OH, SO4 •-, and • O2 -). 25”

• cites [25] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Biochars developed from cow manure and rice husk at 300 or 700 °C directly interact with 1,3-dichloropropene, reaching a slow reaction constant of kobs = 0.35-1.47×10^-4 min^-1 but effective removal efficiencies (55-95.5%).

“Biochars developed from cow manure and rice husk at 300 or 700 °C were also reported to directly interact with 1, 3-dichloropropene, and reached slow reaction constant of kobs = 0.35-1.47× 10 -4 min -1 but effective removal efficiencies (55-95.5 %).”

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• cites [129] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lisowski et al. reported a superior photocatalytic ability of TiO2/biochar with reproducible high photocatalytic efficiency.

“Lisowski et al. also reported the a superior photocatalytic ability of TiO2/biochar with reproducible high photocatalytic efficiency.141”

• cites [141] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

RAMs-induced carbocatalysis requires relatively long reaction time, which may imply longstanding and mild electrochemical catalysis via RAMs on biochar.

“Overall, RAMs-induced carbocatalysis requires relatively long reaction time, which may imply the longstanding and mild electrochemical catalysis via RAMs on biochar.”

May combine two claims.

Copper and its oxides (CuO and Cu2O) are low-toxicity, high-efficiency, abundantly available, and stable mineral contents, making them promising candidates for wastewater treatment.

“As a low-toxicity, high-efficiency, abundantly available, and stable mineral content, copper and its oxides (CuO and Cu2O) arise as promising candidates for wastewater treatment.134”

• cites [134] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Zhong et al. reported an enhanced Cr(VI) removal rate by a hybrid adsorption-reduction process using Fe3O4 acting as the crucial redox sites on biochar, and EPFRs were verified to effectively participate and induce an indispensable synergistic effect with metal centres in Cr(VI) reduction.

“Zhong et al. reported an enhanced Cr(VI) removal rate by a hybrid adsorption-reduction process using Fe3O4 acting as the crucial redox sites on biochar, and EPFRs were verified to effectively participate within and induced an indispensable synergistic effect with metal centres in Cr(VI) reduction.56”

• cites [56] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Previous research on metal-incorporated biochars aimed to enhance separation and recyclability by endowing ferromagnetism, promote adsorption capacity towards anionic metalloids or organic pollutants, and act as pore forming agents during thermochemical conversion.

“Previous research studying metal-incorporated biochars strived to reach practical objectives including: (a) enhancing the separation and recyclability of biochar by endowing ferromagnetism to the metalbiochar composites (e.g., iron, cobalt, and nickel) after environmental applications in aqueous solution; (b) promoting the adsorption capacity of raw biochars towards anionic metalloids or organic”

• cites [34] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Wan et al. proved the formation of metastable oxyanion complexes on Cu species which posed nonnegligible direct oxidative potential towards electron donors, and that incorporation of Cu nanoparticles on biochar surface could benefit from the graphitic biochar structure to induce remarkable 1O2 generation.

“Wan et al. proved the formation of metastable oxyanion complexes on Cu species which posed nonnegligible direct oxidative potential towards electron donors (i.e., organic pollutants), and the incorporation of Cu nanoparticles on biochar surface could benefit from the graphitic biochar structure to induce remarkable 1 O2 generation.55”

• cites [55] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Using waste-derived biochar to support nZVI particles is potentially more environmentally friendly and economically competitive.

“Using waste-derived biochar to support nZVI particles is potentially more environmentally friendly and economically competitive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cu species as p-type semiconducting materials have a relatively narrow band gap of 1.8-2.2 eV and 1.2-1.8 eV.

“Irrespective of the non-radical activation potential, aforementioned Cu species as the p-type semiconducting materials have a relatively narrow band gap of 1.8-2.2eV and 1.2-1.8eV, making these materials promising in photoelectronic devices, sensors, and batteries industries.138”

• cites [138] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A carbon/metal configuration can help alleviate potential deactivation of the carbon layer and strengthen affinity towards oxyanions with improved surface characteristics.

“Such a carbon/metal configuration can help to alleviate the potential deactivation of carbon layer and strengthen affinity towards oxyanions with improved surface characteristics. 2”

• cites [2] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The irreproducibility of CuO non-radical activation might result from misapprehension of the role of CuO in non-radical activation.

“It might result from the misapprehension to the role of CuO in non-radical activation.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Numerous publications on relevant carbon-based materials have already emphasized the indispensable impacts of high curvature regions (or highly strained regions), pentagon defects, edges, and vacancies in the carbocatalysis.

“Numerous publications on relevant carbon-based materials have already emphasized the indispensable impacts of high curvature regions (or highly strained regions), pentagon defects, edges, and vacancies in the carbocatalysis.149”

• cites [149] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Electron mobility can be effectively improved by a graphitic carbon framework, and electron-rich sites are evenly distributed over carbon to afford more accessible sites.

“Electron mobility can be effectively improved by graphitic carbon framework and electron-rich sites are evenly distributed over carbon to afford more accessible sites.18”

• cites [18] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Although adsorption is not an electron transfer process, the enrichment of pollutant molecules around the active sites is beneficial to the redox reactions afterwards.

“Although adsorption is not an electron transfer process, the enrichment of pollutant molecules around the active sites is beneficial to the redox reactions afterwards.”

May combine two claims.

Well-developed biochar matrices are conducive to immobilizing active metal centres and efficiently reducing metal leaching.

“More importantly, well-developed biochar matrices are conducive to immobilizing active metal centres and efficiently reducing the metal leaching.”

May combine two claims.

Compared with radical-based oxidation, the non-radical pathway helps preserve excessive oxyanion molecules once pollutants are depleted and avoid unproductive oxidation towards the carbon surface.

“Compared with the nature of radical-based oxidation that radicals will be generated spontaneously as long as catalyst and oxyanions are available independent of the presence of target pollutants, the evolvement of non-radical pathway helps to preserve the excessive oxyanion molecules once pollutants are depleted and avoid the unproductive oxidation towards carbon surface.”

May combine two claims.

Zhong et al. prepared a N and Cu co-doped biochar for oxidative degradation of tetracycline and showed that incorporated copper particles could provide free electrons to induce radical generation via plausible Cu2+/Cu3+ redox recycling in aqueous solution.

“Zhong et al. prepared a N and Cu co-doped biochar for oxidative degradation of tetracycline and showed that the incorporated copper particles could provide free electrons to induce radical generation via plausible Cu 2+ /Cu 3+ redox recycling in aqueous solution.135”

• cites [135] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Generated powerful radicals are usually accompanied by side effects like nonselectivity, while sustainable non-radical oxidation presents mild reactivity and better selectivity to electron-rich pollutants.

“Additionally, the generated powerful radicals are usually accompanied with side effects like nonselectivity (i.e., depletion by water molecules, ease of being scavenged by natural organic matters, and generation of highly halogenated products), while sustainable non-radical oxidation presents mild reactivity and better selectivity to electron-rich pollutants.”

May combine two claims.

Transition metals and their oxides have irrevocable deficiencies such as poor affinity towards reactants due to intrinsic surface chemistry (low specific surface area and pore volume, inherent surface energy, unfavourable charged surface) and detrimental leaching potential, which inhibit their wider application.

“while the irrevocable deficiencies such as poor affinity towards reactants (i.e., peroxides or pollutants) due to their intrinsic surface chemistry (i.e., low specific surface area and pore volume, inherent surface energy, and unfavourable charged surface, etc.) and detrimental leaching potential inhibit their wider application.83”

• cites [83] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Lu et al. prepared TiO2/biochar composite catalysts for photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange; an appropriate biochar ratio promoted the activity of TiO2 and increased decolorization and mineralization efficiency by 20.8% and 51.0%, respectively, compared to a TiO2 control group.

“Similarly, a series of TiO2/biochar composite catalysts were prepared by Lu et al. for the photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange.Appropriate biochar ratio was found to promote the activity of TiO2 and increase decolorization and mineralization efficiency by 20.8% and 51.0%, respectively, as compared to TiO2 control group.61”

• cites [61] sourceNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Considering the cost-effectiveness and strong adsorption capacity of biochar in contrast to expensive low-dimensional nanocarbons, biochars have manifested their promising prospect as easily manoeuvrable structural constitutes to reach an enhanced dual-function of adsorption and carbocatalysis.

“Considering the cost-effectiveness and strong adsorption capacity of biochar in contrast to expensive low-dimensional nanocarbons, biochars have manifested their promising prospect as easily manoeuvrable structural constitutes to reach an enhanced dual-function of adsorption and carbocatalysis.”

May combine two claims.

Efficient PMS activation by CuO via a sustainable non-radical route has been discovered, but most researchers found it irreproducible.

“Since the discovery of efficient PMS activation by CuO via an appealing sustainable non-radical route, 136 many researchers have been devoted to exploiting this intriguing feature but most found it irreproducible.”

• cites [136] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The intrinsic redox process on the solid-liquid interface of biochar has received insufficient emphasis in custom design of biochar production.

“It is noteworthy that although a wide array of studies has been conducted, the intrinsic redox process on the solid-liquid interface of biochar received insufficient emphasis on custom design of biochar production.80”

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May combine two claims.

Biochar addition can promote direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET) and improve biogas production in anaerobic digestion.

“Biochar addition could also promote direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET) and improve biogas production in anaerobic digestion.171,172”

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• cites [172] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Well-ordered carbon matrices possess distinct electronic properties that allow them to serve as efficient electron shuttles, deliver charges among aromatic units, and prompt inherent catalytic redox reactions on carbonaceous material surfaces.

“Lately, well-ordered carbon matrices are found to pose distinct electronic properties to serve as efficient electron shuttles, deliver charges among aromatic units, and prompt inherent catalytic redox reactions on the surface of carbonaceous materials.25,167”

• cites [25] sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [167] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

B, S, P, and other co-doping technologies applied on biochar matrices are restrained by critical demands in fabrication technique for well-ordered carbon π-system and favourable edge sites to accomplish efficient doping of heteroatoms dopants.

“Currently, they are restrained by the critical demands in fabrication technique for well-ordered carbon π-system and favourable edge sites to accomplish efficient doping of heteroatoms dopants.”

May combine two claims.

The secondary S dopant tends to act as spin-dominated heteroatoms that disrupt the spin nature of carbon matrices, resulting in a more interactive surface with oxyanions and decreasing the energy barrier of the peroxide bond for electron stimulation.

“Hence, the secondary S dopant tends to act as spindominated heteroatoms to disrupt the spin nature of carbon matrices, resulting in a more intimately interactive surface with oxyanions to decrease the energy barrier of peroxide bond for electron stimulation.162”

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May combine two claims.

S atoms have an electronegativity (2.58) similar to carbon, unlike B (2.05) and N.

“Different from B (Pauling scale χb = 2.05) and N atoms, S atoms (Pauling scale χs = 2.58) display a similar electronegativity to that of carbon atoms.149”

• cites [149] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A P-doped biochar prepared from corn straw by one-step manufacture might possess high electroactive capability owing to lower electronegativity of P and larger covalent radius, but it was solely elucidated for adsorption behaviour rather than electron-mediated carbocatalysis.

“In addition, a P-doped biochar prepared from corn straw by one-step manufacture might possess high electroactive capability owing to the lower electronegativity of P and larger covalent radius, but it was solely elucidated into its adsorption behaviour rather than electron-mediated carbocatalysis.166”

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Carbocatalysis from tuneable electronic features by the formed carbon-noncarbon heteroring is usually neglected in these processes.

“Carbocatalysis from tuneable electronic features by the formed carbon-noncarbon heteroring is usually neglected in these processes.”

May combine two claims.

Each graphitic N can add approximately 0.5 free electron to the carbon π-network, whereas pyridinic N and nitrile N remove charges from the carbon structure to form p-type doping.

“According to approximate calculation, each graphitic N can add ~ 0.5 free electron to the carbon π-network, while pyridinic N and nitrile N remove charges from carbon structure to form p-type doping.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Lian et al. manufactured N-doped microporous biochar from crop straws pyrolyzed at 800 °C with ammonia purging for 3 h, which exhibited high micropore volume (71.5%) and nitrogen content (8.81 at.%).

“Lian et al. manufactured a N-doped microporous biochar from crop straws pyrolyzed at 800 °C with ammonia purging for 3 h, which exhibited high micropore volume (71.5%) and nitrogen content (8.81 at.%).”

• cites [164] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Inorganic nitrogen precursors (NH4Cl and NH3) are less explored and usually utilized as pore volume and surface area improving agents under pyrolytic temperature.

“inorganic nitrogen precursors (i.e., NH4Cl and NH3) are less explored, and usually utilized as pore volume and surface area improving agents under pyrolytic temperature.”

May combine two claims.

Urea-derived N functionalization of biochar preferentially introduced pyrrolic N and pyridinic N, with no regularity found for graphitic N.

“Nevertheless, opposite findings were observed that urea-derived N functionalization for biochar led to preferential introduction of pyrrolic N and pyridinic N while no regularity was found for graphitic N. 35”

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May combine two claims.

Graphitic N in the carbon lattice can decrease the dissociation energy barrier of adsorbed oxygen species, which may account for sustainable oxygen species activation.

“Meanwhile, the graphitic N in carbon lattice could decrease the dissociation energy barrier of absorbed oxygen species, 149 which is expected to account for the sustainable oxygen species activation.”

• cites [149] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The generation of different reactive species might come from their distinct coupled modification technique and parent precursors.

“The generation of different reactive species might come from their distinct coupled modification technique and parent precursors.”

May combine two claims.

Rong et al. synthesized magnetic N-doped biochar from banana peels via a one-pot thermal process, and the resultant biochar was used as a cost-effective and recyclable electron donor for PDS activation.

“Rong et al. utilized banana peels as composite biochar precursor and N source to synthesize magnetic N-doped biochar via a facile one-pot thermal process.The resultant biochar was used as the cost-effective and recyclable electron donor for PDS activation.160”

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May combine two claims.

Graphitic N is sp2-hybridized, possesses unpaired electrons with paramagnetic properties, forms a delocalized conjugated π system within the carbon framework, and its high electronegativity (Pauling scale χn = 3.04) enables it to abstract electrons from adjacent carbon (Pauling scale χc = 2.55) and alter electron density in a localized region of the carbon framework.

“The sp 2 -hybridized graphitic N possesses unpaired electrons with paramagnetic properties, forming delocalized conjugated π system within carbon framework, and the high electronegativity (Pauling scale χn = 3.04) enables graphitic N atom to abstract electrons from adjacent carbon (Pauling scale χc = 2.55) and alter the electron density in a localized region of carbon framework.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It remains unclear which of the two typical graphitic N configurations, valley-type and centre-type, is responsible for catalytic performance.

“though it is still not clear which one of these two typical graphitic N configurations, namely valley-type and centre-type graphitic N species, should be responsible for the catalytic performance.159”

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May combine two claims.

Mian et al. fabricated magnetic N-doped biochar under 800 °C with ammonia purging and found that introduced nitrogen dopants caused reduction of Cr(VI) into Cr(III).

“Mian et al. fabricated a magnetic N-doped biochar under similar operational conditions (800 °C with ammonia purging) and found those introduced nitrogen dopants caused the reduction of Cr(Ⅵ) into Cr(Ⅲ).165”

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Common nitrogen additives for external N-source doping of raw biomass via thermal treatment include organic types (urea and melamine) and inorganic ones (ammonium salts and ammonia).

“the common nitrogen additives include organic type (i.e., urea and melamine) and inorganic ones (i.e., ammonium salts and ammonia).”

May combine two claims.

Nanodiamonds with a sp3-hybridized core coated with amorphous carbon layer are ineffective for electron abstraction in PDS activation, whereas rGO-900 with sp2-hybridized lattices and plentiful defective sites, non-hexagonal units, and RAMs demonstrates superior electroactive performance for catalytic reactions.

“Previously, nanodiamonds that possesses a sp 3 -hybridized core and coated with amorphous carbon layer were found to be ineffective for electron abstraction in PDS activation, while rGO-900 with sp 2 -hybridized lattices and plentiful defective sites, non-hexagonal units, and RAMs demonstrated superior electroactive performance for catalytic reactions.1”

• cites [1] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Ho et al. fabricated N-doped biochar from direct pyrolysis of C-phycocyanin extracted Spirulina residue, achieving self-doping of graphitic N at 900 °C from inherent protein contents, enabling efficient electron transfer to PDS molecules.

“Ho et al. fabricated a novel N-doped biochar from direct pyrolysis of C-phycocyanin extracted Spirulina residue, and the self-doping of graphitic N could be achieved under high pyrolytic temperature (900 °C) from the inherent protein contents in algae for efficient electron transfer to PDS molecules.34”

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May combine two claims.

Partially graphitized nanodiamond composed of a sp3-hybridized core surrounded by a sp2-hybridized carbon layer exhibits excellent electrocatalysis compared with inert pristine nanodiamond, confirming the critical role of conjugated carbon units.

“Lee et al. further verified that partially graphitized nanodiamond composed of a sp 3 -hybridized core surrounded by sp 2hybridized carbon layer exhibited excellent electrocatalysis compared with inert pristine nanodiamond, confirming the critical role of conjugated carbon units.24”

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May combine two claims.

A human-hair-derived N,S-doped porous biochar fabricated at 800 °C outperformed most traditional metal-based catalysts for PMS activation in bisphenol A degradation, with incorporated graphitic N circulating electron flow and adjusting electron density of adjacent carbon atoms.

“A human-hair-derived N, S-doped porous biochar was also successfully fabricated under high temperature (800 °C), and outperformed most traditional metal-based catalysts towards PMS activation for bisphenol A degradation, wherein the incorporated graphitic N exhibited good function to circulate electron flow and adjust the electron density of adjacent carbon atoms.161”

• cites [161] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

XPS, Raman, TEM, and EIS can effectively indicate the graphitization of biochar and are more suitable to illustrate electrochemical behaviour following geoconductor theory.

“Correspondingly, XPS, Raman, TEM, and EIS can effectively indicate the graphitization of biochar and more suitable to illustrate electrochemical behaviour following geoconductor theory.”

May combine two claims.

Yu et al.'s top-down methodology differentiated the roles of components on sludge-derived biochars: graphitic carbon matrix primarily took over when pyrolytic temperature was elevated to 800 °C, while acid-soluble substances account for charge-dominated behaviour of biochar pyrolyzed at 400 and 600 °C.

“Yu et al. proposed a top-down methodology to differentiate the individual role of different components on sludge-derived biochars, in which graphitic carbon matrix primarily took over when pyrolytic temperature was elevated to 800 ℃, while the acid-soluble substances should account for charge-dominated behaviour of biochar pyrolyzed at 400 and 600 ℃. 173”

• cites [173] sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

FTIR, XPS, XRD, LSV, and EA are important characterization methods to determine oxygen functionalities and are recommended to quantitatively verify the involvement of geobattery theory.

“Noteworthily, FTIR, XPS, XRD, LSV, and EA are important characterization methods to determine oxygen functionalities and thus are recommended to quantitatively verify the involvement of geobattery theory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Electron paramagnetic resonance can qualitatively verify the RAMs type on biochars and quantitatively measure ROS intensity with the addition of spin trapping agents including DMPO or TEMP.

“Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) can help to qualitatively verify the RAMs type on biochars and quantitatively measure ROS intensity with the addition of different spin trapping agents including 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrrolidine N-oxide (DMPO) or 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-piperidone (TEMP).”

May combine two claims.

Copper-incorporated graphitic biochar was found to initiate the generation of 1O2 derived from surface reactive complexes attached on copper atoms and to accept unconfined electrons transferred from organic pollutants via graphitic carbon matrices.

“The aforementioned copper incorporated graphitic biochar was found to initiate the generation of 1 O2 derived from surface reactive complexes attached on copper atoms and accept the unconfined electrons transferred from organic pollutants via graphitic carbon matrices.55”

• cites [55] sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Commonly incorporated metals on biochar include iron, copper, manganese, and aluminium, while only several transition metal systems, such as Fe and Cu, involve electron-mediated efficacy and are critically emphasized in this review.

“Commonly incorporated metals on biochar include iron, copper, manganese, and aluminium, etc., while only several transitions metal (e.g., Fe and Cu) systems involve electron-mediated efficacy and are critically emphasized in this review.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Effective electron transfer from incorporated metals to the conjugated carbon framework would increase the local electronic states of the carbon surface at a localized region.

“Effective electron transfer from incorporated metals to the conjugated carbon framework would increase the local electronic states of carbon surface at localized region.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Electroactive components can determine the inherent catalytic capability of biochar.

“Electroactive components can determine the inherent catalytic capability of biochar.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance can determine the carbon aromaticity and the content of protonated or non-protonated carbon atoms in biochars by Zeeman splitting of the spin level of the nucleus under an external magnetic field.

“Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is able to determine the carbon aromaticity and the content of protonated or non-protonated carbon atoms in biochars by Zeeman splitting of spin level of nucleus under external magnetic field.80”

• cites [80] sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Since Wang et al. reported superior catalytic performance of various nanocarbons that primarily stemmed from open sp2-hybridized carbon matrices with rich zigzag/armchair edges and vacancy defects, structural engineering with reactive defective sites has been an emerging technique applied in the carbon-involved environmental field.

“Since Wang et al. reported the superior catalytic performance of various nanocarbons, which primarily stemmed from the open sp 2 -hybridized carbon matrices with rich zigzag/armchain edges and vacancy defects, 1 structural engineering with reactive defective sites has been an emerging technique applied in carbon-involved environmental field.”

• cites [1] sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A highly ordered sp2-hybridized carbon structure can act as an excellent enhancer or bridge to synergize with electrochemical behaviours from other components on biochar and account especially for direct electron transfer.

“It appears the highly order sp 2 -hybridied carbon structure can act as excellent enhancer or bridge to synergize with the electrochemical behaviours from other components on biochar, and account for especially direct electron transfer.”

May combine two claims.

In non-radical catalytic reactions, electroactive sites such as RAMs, metal active sites, and defective sites first initiate electron flow by an electrochemical force from geobattery pairs; the prompted unconfined electrons then migrate along conjugated biochar matrices with abundant π-electrons acting as a geoconductor or shuttle.

“Specifically, the non-radical catalytic reaction is first initiated by electroactive sites like RAMs, metal active sites, and defective sites to trigger electron flow by an electrochemical force from geobattery pairs, then the prompted unconfined electrons could migrate along the conjugated biochar matrices with abundant π-electrons acting as a geoconductor/shuttle.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Biochar is an integrated carbonaceous structure consisting of crosslinked sp3-hybridized, sp2-hybridized, and amorphous carbon atoms with massive electroactive defects and RAMs on its surface.

May combine two claims.

Compared with RAMs or metal contents that are irreversibly consumable, environmentally unstable under natural conditions, and potentially able to cause secondary contamination, metal-free techniques such as non-carbon heteroatom doping can greatly improve the inert and nonstoichiometric nature of engineered biochar, prompting versatile synergies among different electroactive components to evolve非非

“Compared with RAMs or metal contents that are irreversibly consumable, environmentally unstable under natural conditions, and even potential to cause secondary contamination, the metal-free techniques (e.g., non-carbon heteroatoms doping) can greatly improve the inert and nonstoichiometric nature of engineered biochar, thus prompting versatile synergies among different electroactive components to”

May combine two claims.

Readily generated surface-bound reactive radicals were considered responsible for PDS activation using graphitic wood-derived biochar pyrolyzed at 700 °C, and RAMs including EPFRs and C-OH on graphitized carbon structure accounted for confined-radical generation.

“For instance, readily generated surface-bound reactive radicals were considered to be responsible for PDS activation utilizing graphitic wood-derived biochar pyrolyzed at 700 ℃, and the RAMs including EPFRs and C-OH on graphitized carbon structure accounted for confined-radical generation.112”

• cites [112] sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The emerging carbon-based redox system of biochar, compared with nanocarbons with high production cost or transition metals with toxic leaching potential, avoids an undesirable complicated fabrication process with chemical- and energy-intensive input and detrimental secondary contamination.

“This emerging carbon-based redox system, as compared to nanocarbons with high production cost or transition metals with toxic leaching potential, avoids the undesirable complicated fabrication process with chemical-and energy-intensive input and detrimental secondary contamination.”

May combine two claims.

Incorporation of metal components inside biochars can adjust the surface chemistry of raw biochars and enable better electrocatalysis during charge-dominated processes.

“The incorporation of metal components inside biochars can adjust the surface chemistry of raw biochars and enable better electrocatalysis during the charge-dominated processes.2”

• cites [2] sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Sustainable non-radical behaviours usually take place as inherent surface chemical reactions on carbon lattices and refer to green and mild pathways without relying on non-selective radicals released into bulk solution.

“Usually, these sustainable non-radical behaviours take place as inherent surface chemical reactions on carbon lattices, and refer to green and mild pathways without relying on non-selective radicals released into bulk solution.”

May combine two claims.

The electron-shuttle scenario reflects the electrochemical properties of biochar and proves superior electron accepting capacity and electron donating capacity from the sp2-hybridized graphitic carbon lattice.

“The electron-shuttle scenario reflects the electrochemical properties of biochar, which further proves the superior electron accepting capacity (EAC) and electron donating capacity (EDC) from the sp 2hybridized graphitic carbon lattice.27”

• cites [27] sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The appealing electronic capacities of biochar are usually correlated with sustainable non-radical species such as singlet oxygenation, surface-confined reactive complexes, or other surface-bound ROS susceptible to electron-rich donors, and show better selectivity to electron-rich pollutants.

“These appealing electronic capacities are usually correlated with sustainable non-radical species like singlet oxygenation, surface-confined reactive complexes or other surface-bound ROS susceptible to electron-rich donors and show a better selectivity to electron-rich pollutant.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

With an integrated fabrication-modification process and theoretical calculation for tailored electronic properties of biochar, a comprehensive understanding of electrochemical carbocatalysis for biochar can be achieved without compromising catalytic efficacy.

“With integrated fabrication-modification process and theoretical calculation for tailored electronic properties of biochar, a comprehensive understanding of electrochemical carbocatalysis for biochar can be achieved without compromising catalytic efficacy.”