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Cited by 308Schizophrenia research and treatmentVisual perception and processing mechanismsHallucinations in medical conditions

Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

Open access
Teufel, Christoph, Subramaniam, Naresh, Dobler, Veronika, Perez, Jesus, Finnemann, Johanna, Mehta, Puja R., Goodyer, Ian M., Fletcher, Paul C.·2015·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
DOI 10.1073/pnas.1503916112
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Abstract

Significance: Perceiving things that are not there and holding unfounded, bizarre beliefs (hallucinations and delusions, respectively) are psychotic symptoms that occur in particular syndromes including affective psychoses, paranoid states, and schizophrenia. We studied the emergence of this loss of contact with reality based on current models of normal brain function. Working with clinical individuals experiencing early psychosis and nonclinical individuals with high levels of psychosis proneness, we show that their visual perception is characterized by a shift that favors prior knowledge over incoming sensory evidence. Given that these alterations in information processing are evident early on in psychosis and even in association with subtle perceptual changes indicating psychosis proneness, they may be important factors contributing to the emergence of severe mental illnesses.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In two complementary studies, early-psychosis individuals and psychosis-prone healthy people showed a stronger reliance on prior knowledge over sensory evidence in visual perception. This shift improved performance on an ambiguous two-tone discrimination task, suggesting a basic information-processing alteration that may contribute to psychotic experiences.

Key findings

  • Study 1: after template exposure, both groups improved in discrimination sensitivity (d′), but the improvement was more than twice as large in the early-psychosis/ARMS group (mean ± SE: 0.35 ± 0.06) than in controls (0.14 ± 0.07); group × block interaction: F(1,32) = 5.02, P < 0.05.
  • Study 1 also found a criterion shift after prior knowledge overall (F(1,32) = 37.77, P < 0.001), with no group difference.
  • Study 2: prior knowledge improved d′ in healthy observers (paired t test, df = 39, t = 7.08, P < 0.001), and the benefit correlated with anomalous perceptual experiences on CAPS (r = 0.42, df = 38, t = 2.98, P < 0.01) and delusion-like thinking on PDI (r = 0.33, df = 38, t = 2.14, P < 0.05).
  • In partial correlations, the PDI relation disappeared when CAPS was controlled (r = 0.19, df = 37, t = 1.17, not significant), whereas the CAPS relation remained when PDI was controlled (r = 0.35, df = 37, t = 2.28, P < 0.05).

Methods

  • Study 1 was a case-control study with 34 participants from the CAMEO early intervention service: 16 healthy volunteers (9 males) and 18 at-risk mental state individuals (13 males), matched on age and IQ. Observers performed a yes/no discrimination task on briefly presented two-tone images before and after viewing color template images, with signal detection theory measures d′ and criterion.
  • Study 2 recruited 40 healthy observers from the local population and used the same task, extended to 16 sessions and with two image categories (people and animals), relating performance benefit to schizotypy scales CAPS and PDI.
  • Main analyses included mixed 2 × 2 ANOVA, paired t tests, product-moment correlations, and first-order partial correlations.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the findings cannot distinguish whether the shift reflects atypically strong knowledge representations or an unusually noisy sensory system; it also notes that neuromodulatory gain control was not directly measured.
  • The paper states that study 2 participants were not suffering from psychosis or a diagnosed mental illness, and that the clinical group differed from controls on a range of psychiatric measures, making specificity difficult.
  • The paper notes that early and midlevel visual function was not directly probed, and that performance cannot be directly compared across the two experiments because of design differences; the small clinical sample is evident from the reported group sizes.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1073/pnas.1503916112

Cites

62 of 62 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 49 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    In study 2, prior knowledge resulted in a significant improvement in the ability to distinguish between test and control images (paired t test, df = 39, t = 7.08, P < 0.001).

    “As expected, prior knowledge resulted in a significant improvement in the ability to distinguish between test and control images (Fig. 3A left plot; paired t test, df = 39, t = 7.08, P < 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The relation between a delusion-like style of thinking (PDI) and performance benefit due to prior knowledge disappeared once an observer's anomalous perceptual experiences (CAPS) were taken into account (first-order partial correlation, r = 0.19, df = 37, t = 1.17, not significant).

    “The relation between a delusion-like style of thinking and performance benefit due to prior knowledge disappeared once an observer's anomalous perceptual experiences were taken into account (firstorder partial correlation, r = 0.19, df = 37, t = 1.17, not significant).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In study 2, a criterion shift was observed (paired t test, df = 39, t = 4.11, P < 0.001).

    “Similar to the previous experiment, we also observed a criterion shift (Fig. 3A, Right; paired t test, df = 39, t = 4.11, P < 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A significant relation between CAPS and performance benefit remained even when PDI was controlled for (r = 0.35, df = 37, t = 2.28, P < 0.05).

    “By contrast, a significant relation between CAPS and performance benefit remained even when PDI was controlled for (r = 0.35, df = 37, t = 2.28, P < 0.05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In study 1, observers in both groups had a stronger response bias (criterion shift) to report seeing an object after being given relevant image information compared with before (F(1,32) = 37.77, P < 0.001).

    “Additional analyses showed that, on average, observers in both groups had a stronger response bias (as measured by a criterion shift) to report seeing an object after being given relevant image information compared with before [F(1,32) = 37.77, P < 0.001; Fig. 1D, Right].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 18
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The increased benefit in the clinical group was observed in the absence of an overall difference between groups (F(1,32) < 1, not significant) and was not due to a difference in baseline performance in the Before block (Welch's t test, df = 31.16, t = 0.19, not significant).

    “It is noteworthy that the increased benefit in the clinical group was observed in the absence of an overall difference between groups [F(1,32) < 1, not significant] and was not due to a difference in baseline performance in the Before block (Welch's two-sample t test, before clinical vs. before controls: df = 31.16,t = 0.19, not significant).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In study 1, the clinical (ARMS) group showed increased performance improvements due to prior knowledge but were no worse than controls at discriminating ambiguous two-tone images without prior knowledge.

    “Although performance improvements due to prior knowledge were increased in the clinical group in study 1, these individuals were no worse (than controls) in their ability to discriminate ambiguous two-tone images without prior knowledge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Performance on the two-tone discrimination task, analysed with signal detection theory, validly characterizes the balance between bottom-up sensory evidence and top-down prior knowledge.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

    Psychosis is associated with a range of different psychiatric disorders.

    “As well as offering a purer assessment of the emergence of psychotic experiences, this approach is inspired by growing evidence suggesting that psychosis lies on a continuum with normality (19,20) and is associated with a range of different psychiatric disorders (15,21).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    These findings fit neatly with and support current conceptual and computational models of psychotic symptoms.

    “These findings fit neatly with and support current conceptual and computational models of psychotic symptoms (8)(9)(10)(11)(12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

    Existing diagnostic categories group biologically heterogeneous syndromes with potentially different pathophysiological mechanisms into one disorder, which may obfuscate attempts to understand the neurobiological underpinnings of mental illness.

    “According to this perspective, existing diagnostic categories group biologically heterogeneous syndromes with potentially different pathophysiological mechanisms into one disorder (22); this may obfuscate our attempts to understand the neurobiological underpinnings of mental illness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

    The comparison between early psychosis patients and controls is not confounded by the effects of antipsychotic medication or the impact of chronic illness.

    “Moreover, and also critically, this comparison is not confounded by the effects of antipsychotic medication or the impact of chronic illness, allowing us, as purely as possible, to explore the mechanisms of early psychosis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although in the current experimental task this shift conferred a performance benefit, under most natural viewing situations it may provoke anomalous perceptual experiences.

    “Although, in the current experimental task, this shift conferred a performance benefit, under most natural viewing situations, it may provoke anomalous perceptual experiences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A single core disturbance relating to the balance between bottom-up and top-down processing can explain both the hallucinatory experiences and the bizarre delusional beliefs of psychotic patients.

    “For instance, it has been hypothesized that a single core disturbance relating to the balance between bottom-up and top-down processing can explain both the hallucinatory experiences and the bizarre delusional beliefs of psychotic patients (8,11).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Altered perceptual experiences form a key part of the emergence of psychosis.

    “It has long been known that altered perceptual experiences form a key part of the emergence of psychosis (29).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Cardiff Anomalous Perception Scale (CAPS) and the Peters Delusion Inventory (PDI) are specific to clinical features relating to hallucinations and delusions respectively.

    “Note that, although other schizotypy scales such as Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE) (27) and Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) (28) characterize a number of schizotypal features, CAPS and PDI are specific to clinical features relating to hallucinations and delusions respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Individuals in study 2 were not suffering from psychosis or even a diagnosed mental illness.

    “Although schizotypy is a marker for psychosis proneness as ascertained by previous longitudinal studies (18), it is important to acknowledge that individuals in study 2 were not suffering from psychosis or even a diagnosed mental illness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

    Individuals with early psychosis who fall below the threshold for a categorical diagnosis already show symptoms and have an increased risk for transitioning to a severe mental illness such as schizophrenia or an affective disorder.

    “Although, at the time of testing, these individuals fell below the threshold for a categorical diagnosis, they already showed symptoms and have an increased risk for transitioning to a severe mental illness such as schizophrenia or an affective disorder (15).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Premisecitation
    § Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

    At the perceptual level, an undue reliance on prior knowledge in perception may lead to the emergence of aberrant perceptions such as hallucinations.

    “According to such models, at the perceptual level, an undue reliance on prior knowledge in perception may lead to the emergence of aberrant perceptions such as hallucinations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

    Schizotypy is a personality measure that has established predictive value for psychotic and other mental illnesses.

    “Schizotypy refers to a personality measure that has established predictive value for psychotic and other mental illnesses (18).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    A shift in the balance toward prior knowledge is present both in a clinical group of individuals with early psychosis and even associated with psychosis proneness in the general population.

    “Importantly, we show that, on the perceptual level, a shift in this balance toward prior knowledge is present both in a clinical group of individuals with early psychosis and even associated with psychosis proneness in the general population.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Premisecitation
    § Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

    An imbalance in the combination of bottom-up sensory evidence and top-down prior knowledge is at the core of psychosis.

    “Conceptual and computational models of psychosis have hypothesized that an imbalance in the combination of bottom-up sensory evidence and top-down prior knowledge is at the core of this altered state of mind (8)(9)(10)(11)(12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Shift toward prior knowledge confers a perceptual advantage in early psychosis and psychosis-prone healthy individuals

    Hallucinations in the visual domain are very common in schizophrenia.

    “Although the conventional view focuses preferentially on auditory hallucinations in psychosis, epidemiological evidence indicates that hallucinations in the visual domain are very common in, for example, schizophrenia (13).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    An extensive piloting phase was run to generate appropriate two-tone images.

    “In the current study, we ran an extensive piloting phase to generate appropriate images.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    On a neuronal level, the bottom-up/top-down balance is implemented by neuromodulatory gain control of feedforward and feedback neuronal circuitries, so that psychosis may be understood in terms of atypicalities in these control mechanisms.

    “Some authors argue that, on a neuronal level, the bottom-up/ top-down balance is implemented by neuromodulatory gain control of feedforward and feedback neuronal circuitries; adopting this approach, psychosis may thus be understood in terms of atypicalities in these control mechanisms (35).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Studying the mechanisms by which symptoms arise is part of a more general move in translational research and is seen as a necessary prelude to a successful classificatory system in psychiatry.

    “This approach is part of a more general move in translational research aimed at developing our understanding of the mechanisms by which symptoms arise (22); this is seen as a necessary prelude to a successful classificatory system in psychiatry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The changes in information processing reported here might be among the influences that, in concert with other factors, contribute to the emergence of major mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and affective disorders.

    “The changes in information processing we report here might be among the influences that, in concert with other factors, contribute to the emergence of major mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and affective disorders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Predictive coding might provide a common framework within which to understand mental illness more generally.

    “This similarity highlights the notion that predictive coding might provide a common framework within which to understand mental illness more generally.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In schizophrenia, both increased and decreased susceptibility to various visual illusions is observed.

    “In schizophrenia, one important diagnostic category associated with psychosis, both increased and decreased susceptibility to various visual illusions is observed (37)(38)(39)(40)(41).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites (37)(38)(39)(40)(41)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    In study 1, the groups were matched on age and IQ using Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test.

    “The groups were matched on age and IQ, using Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some authors argue that certain visual illusions rely on some form of top-down processing, a claim that has been contested.

    “some authors argue that certain illusions rely on some form of top-down processing (40,41), a claim that has been contested (42,43).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The stronger reliance on top-down processing could be due either to atypically strong knowledge representations or to an unusually noisy sensory system.

    “Importantly, this could either be due to atypically strong knowledge representations or, alternatively, to an unusually noisy sensory system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Computational explanations of the balance between sensory evidence and prior knowledge are typically cast in terms of Bayesian models of perception and formalized within a predictive coding framework.

    “Computational explanations of the balance between sensory evidence and prior knowledge as highlighted by our study are typically cast in terms of Bayesian models of perception and formalized within a predictive coding framework (5,31,32).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The study did not directly measure neuromodulatory gain control.

    “Given that our study did not directly measure neuromodulatory gain control, this assertion is speculative but it might provide a fruitful avenue for future research.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    In such accounts, the integration of bottom-up and top-down signals is mediated by the relative amount of information each component provides, so that the component providing relatively more information is weighted more strongly.

    “the integration of bottom-up and top-down signals is mediated by the relative amount of information each of these components provides: the stronger the sensory evidence is relative to prior knowledge, the more it will impact on the final processing output; conversely, if prior knowledge provides a relatively greater amount of information it will be weighted more strongly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Independently of the underlying mechanisms, atypicalities within the visual system result in the outputs of the perceptual analysis being less well structured and less adaptive.

    “independently of the underlying mechanisms, atypicalities within the visual system result in the outputs of the perceptual analysis being less well structured and less adaptive.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Test and control images had similar low-level statistical properties but differed in whether or not they contained an embedded person.

    “Test and control images had similar low-level statistical properties (SI Materials and Methods) but differed in whether or not they contained an embedded person.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    An imbalance between bottom-up and top-down processing figures prominently in current debates about autism.

    “the same theme of an imbalance between bottom-up and top-down processing figures prominently in current debates about autism (33,34).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    Patients with established schizophrenia show reduced ability to spontaneously disambiguate two-tone images of faces without prior knowledge.

    “it contrasts with previous studies in patients with established schizophrenia who show reduced ability to spontaneously disambiguate two-tone images of faces without prior knowledge (46,47).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Existing evidence suggests that both early psychosis and high schizotypal characteristics may be associated with poorer working memory.

    “Existing evidence suggests that both early psychosis and high schizotypal characteristics may be associated with poorer working memory (44,45).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The current findings suggest that a shift toward enhanced gain of feedback connections or reduced gain of feedforward connections may account for perceptual changes associated with psychosis.

    “the current findings suggest that a shift in the opposite direction-i.e., either enhanced gain of feedback connections or reduced gain of feedforward connections-may account for perceptual changes associated with psychosis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
35 of 35

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Visual illusions in schizophrenia can be explained by processes within the visual system rather than by influences on visual function from higher-level knowledge areas outside the visual system.

    “Critically, however, most researchers agree that these visual illusions can be explained by processes within the visual system, rather than by influences on visual function from higherlevel knowledge areas outside the visual system.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Performance on the two-tone discrimination task, analysed with signal detection theory, validly characterizes the balance between bottom-up sensory evidence and top-down prior knowledge.

    “we used a yes/no task with an analysis derived from signal detection theory to characterize the balance between bottom-up and top-down processing in our observers.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • An additional or complementary mechanism for the persistence of delusions could be an imbalance between priors at low and high levels of the predictive coding hierarchy.

    “An additional (or complementary) mechanism could be related to an imbalance between priors at low and high levels of the predictive coding hierarchy, as suggested by a series of studies investigating perceptual inference in relation to delusions (72, 105–107).”

    From The Predictive Coding Account of Psychosis (2018) · cites this paper as [107]

    The Discussion (page unavailable) describes a shift toward prior knowledge in perception and suggests that an imbalance could propagate through the processing hierarchy to affect higher-level belief formation. It does not specifically identify an imbalance between low- and high-level priors or examine the persistence of delusions. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • People with an 'at risk' mental state outperformed controls in their ability to identify objects in ambiguous, Mooney-style visual stimuli, but only once they were given priming information about the objects.

    “People with an 'at risk' mental state (i.e. in early stages of psychosis) outperformed controls in their ability to identify objects in ambiguous, Mooney-style visual stimuli (Mooney, 1957), but only once they were given priming information about the objects.”

    From Distinct processing of ambiguous speech in people with non-clinical auditory verbal hallucinations (2017) · cites this paper as Teufel et al., 2015

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(1, 32) = 29.27reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,32) = 29.27,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 32) = 5.02reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .032

    “F(1,32) = 5.02, p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 32) = 37.77reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,32) = 37.77, p < .001”

3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. RB Cattell, AK Cattell Measuring Intelligence with the Culture Fair Tests (Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Champaign, IL, 1973).

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Teufel, C., Subramaniam, N., Dobler, V., Perez, J., Finnemann, J., Mehta, P. R., Goodyer, I. M., & Fletcher, P. C.
Affiliations
  • University of Cambridge (GB)
  • National Health Service (GB)
  • Developmental Psychiatry Section, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 8AH, United Kingdom;
ORCID
Venue
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Publisher
National Academy of Sciences
Published
2015-10-12
Volume
112
Issue
43
Pages
13401-13406
ISSN
  • 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
  • 1091-6490
DOI
10.1073/pnas.1503916112
OpenAlex
W2114577133
Cited by
308
References
62
Citations by year
2026: 24 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 15
FWCI
17.60
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.pnas.org/site/misc/userlicense.xhtml (vor)
Locations
  • Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (acceptedVersion)
  • Apollo (University of Cambridge) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Funders
Wellcome Trust (WT095692MA)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hallucinations in medical conditions
Keywords
early psychosis, psychosis proneness, schizotypy, top-down processing, bottom-up processing, prior knowledge, perceptual bias, visual perception, hallucinations, delusions, perceptual anomalies
MeSH terms
Delusions, Female, Hallucinations, Humans, Male, Mental Processes, Models, Psychological, Photic Stimulation, Psychotic Disorders, Visual Perception, Case-Control Studies, Recognition, Psychology

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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