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Cited by 472Schizophrenia research and treatmentVisual perception and processing mechanismsHallucinations in medical conditions

Visual perception and its impairment in schizophrenia

Open access
Butler, Pamela D., Silverstein, Steven M., Dakin, Steven C.·2008·Biological Psychiatry
DOI 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.03.023PMC PMC2435292
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Abstract

Much work in the cognitive neuroscience of schizophrenia has focused on attention, memory, and executive functioning. To date, less work has focused on perceptual processing. However, perceptual functions are frequently disrupted in schizophrenia, and thus this domain has been included in the CNTRICS (Cognitive Neuroscience Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia) project. In this article, we describe the basic science presentation and the breakout group discussion on the topic of perception from the first CNTRICS meeting, held in Bethesda, Maryland on February 26 and 27, 2007. The importance of perceptual dysfunction in schizophrenia, the nature of perceptual abnormalities in this disorder, and the critical need to develop perceptual tests appropriate for future clinical trials were discussed. Although deficits are also seen in auditory, olfactory, and somatosensory processing in schizophrenia, the first CNTRICS meeting focused on visual processing deficits. Key concepts of gain control and integration in visual perception were introduced. Definitions and examples of these concepts are provided in this article. Use of visual gain control and integration fit a number of the criteria suggested by the CNTRICS committee, provide fundamental constructs for understanding the visual system in schizophrenia, and are inclusive of both lower-level and higher-level perceptual deficits.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review summarizes the first CNTRICS meeting’s discussion of visual perceptual dysfunction in schizophrenia, focusing on gain control and integration as candidate constructs for clinical trials. It argues that both constructs are readily measurable, strongly impaired in schizophrenia, and grounded in known visual neurophysiology, though important mechanistic and outcome links remain incomplete.

Key findings

  • Patients with schizophrenia show decreased contrast sensitivity across grating sizes and reduced electrophysiological responses to simple visual stimuli, indicating deficits in contrast gain control within the early visual system.
  • In a contrast illusion study, patients were much less susceptible to the illusion, with 12 of 15 patients being more accurate (less biased) than the most accurate control, consistent with decreased center-surround antagonism and decreased contrast gain control.
  • Motion processing deficits are also reported; one study found that whereas center-surround antagonism reduced controls’ ability to perceive motion of a high-contrast stimulus as its size increased, patients did not show this reduction.
  • Visual integration deficits appear in contrast, contour, form, and motion processing; for example, patients fail to show “flank facilitation” for collinear flankers, suggesting weaker integration of orientation across space.

Methods

  • Design: narrative review and meeting report from the first CNTRICS meeting, held in Bethesda, Maryland on February 26 and 27, 2007.
  • Data/sample: no primary empirical sample; the article describes the basic science presentation and breakout group discussion on perception, focusing on visual processing deficits in schizophrenia.
  • Main analysis: conceptual synthesis of visual system physiology and schizophrenia literature around two constructs—gain control and integration—and assessment of how well each fits CNTRICS criteria.

Limitations

  • The paper states that both gain control and integration are complicated constructs, and that further study is needed to understand their substrates and contribution to higher-level dysfunction.
  • For integration, the paper states that animal models have not been developed, links to neural systems through neuropsychopharmacology are not well developed, and most studies have been behavioral, with less evidence for disturbance in specific circuits in schizophrenia.
  • Evident from the text: this is not a systematic review or meta-analysis and reports no primary data; although auditory, olfactory, and somatosensory deficits are noted, the meeting and article focus on visual processing.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.03.023

Cites

92 of 92 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 153 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationreasoning

    The omission of assessment of perceptual function from the MATRICS battery means that functions frequently disrupted in schizophrenia are not being routinely assessed in clinical trials.

    “In contrast, as we demonstrate in the following text, the omission of assessment of perceptual function from the MATRICS battery means that a set of functions that are frequently disrupted in schizophrenia are not being routinely assessed in clinical trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Tests of perception are not widely used by neuropsychologists.
  • Premisereasoning

    Neurons in the P pathway exhibit less gain control than M pathway neurons.

    “Neurons in the P-pathway exhibit less gain control than M-pathway neurons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    During the MATRICS consensus process, perception was not identified as one of the core cognitive domains relevant to schizophrenia or its treatment.

    “Indeed, during the National Institute of Mental Health MATRICS (Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia) consensus process, perception was not identified as one of the core cognitive domains relevant to schizophrenia or its treatment (1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Neuchterlein, 2004, Identification of separable cognitive factors in schizophrenia, Schizophr Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    NMDA seems to have a central role in gain control.

    “Visual pathways within the brain use glutamate as their primary neurotransmitter, and N-methyl d-aspartate (NMDA) seems to have a central role in gain control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Daw, 1993, The role of NMDA receptors in information processing, Ann Rev Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation

    The reduced amplitude responses to simple visual stimuli indicate deficits in contrast gain control within the early visual system.

    “Second, patients show reduced amplitude responses to simple visual stimuli with steady-state or transient electrophysiological techniques (21,22), indicating deficits in contrast gain control within the early visual system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [21] Butler, 2007, Subcortical visual dysfunction in schizophrenia drives secondary cortical impairments, Brain source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [22] Butler, 2005, Early-stage visual processing and cortical amplification deficits in schizophrenia, Arch Gen Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 69
  • May combine two claims. 37

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Gain control processes permit sensory subsystems to modulate their response levels to take into account spatial and temporal context.

    “These processes permit sensory subsystems to modulate their response levels to take into account spatial and temporal context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Gain control processes assist sensory subsystems in optimizing overall response levels within a limited dynamic signaling range and in increasing contrast between adjacent and successive stimuli.

    “Gain control processes also assist sensory subsystems in optimizing overall response levels within a limited dynamic signaling range and in increasing contrast between adjacent and successive stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Gain control mechanisms might reflect both intrinsic neuronal properties and lateral interactions between neurons.

    “Gain control mechanisms might reflect both intrinsic neuronal properties and lateral interactions between neurons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The surround inhibition confers on the neuron the ability to signal change in luminance.

    “This confers on the neuron the ability to signal change in luminance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ganglion cells in the retina do not respond well to uniform fields of light but do respond to spots of light.

    “For example, ganglion cells in the retina do not respond well to uniform fields of light but do respond to spots of light (11).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Kuffler, 1953, Discharge patterns and functional organization of mammalian retina, J Neurophysiol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Gain control processes allow sensory systems to adapt and optimize their responses to stimuli within a particular surrounding context.

    “Gain control refers to processes that allow sensory systems to adapt and optimize their responses to stimuli within a particular surrounding context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The ventral stream is modulated by attention due to inputs from frontal cortex and dorsal stream.

    “It is also modulated by attention due to inputs from frontal cortex and dorsal stream.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The ventral stream processes orientation and size in V1, contour and form in V2, shape in V4, and objects and faces in IT.

    “The ventral stream processes orientation and size (V1), contour and form (V2), then shape (V4), and finally objects and faces (IT) (9,10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [9] Rolls, 2004, Invariant object and face recognition

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [10] Ungerleider, 2004, Ventral and dorsal cortical processing streams

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The P system is involved in processing of fine-grained stimulus details and object identification.

    “The P system originates with LGN neurons with smaller cell bodies and, in contrast, conducts high-resolution visual information to cortex and is involved in processing of fine-grained stimulus details and object identification (2,6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] Merigan, 1993, How parallel are the primate visual pathways?, Ann Rev Neuroscience source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [6] Norman, 2002, Two visual systems and two theories of perception: An attempt to reconcile the constructivist and ecological approaches, Behav Brain Sci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The M system is involved in initial attentional capture.

    “The M system is driven by neurons in the LGN with large cell bodies and, in general, conducts low-resolution visual information rapidly to cortex and is involved in initial attentional capture (typically by stimulus onset/offset and/or movement) and processing of overall stimulus organization (2–5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [2] Merigan, 1993, How parallel are the primate visual pathways?, Ann Rev Neuroscience source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] Vidyasagar, 1999, A neuronal model of attentional spotlight: Parietal guiding the temporal, Brain Res Brain Res Rev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [4] Fenske, 2006, Top-down facilitation of visual object recognition: Object-based and context-based contributions, Prog Brain Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Steinman, 1997, Transient visual attention is dominated by the magnocellular stream, Vision Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In area V2, receptive fields respond preferentially to corners or junctions.

    “The size and complexity of receptive fields increases as one progresses through the visual hierarchy: in the retina/LGN receptive fields respond preferentially to spots of light, in V1 they are tuned for orientation (preferring lines or bars) (12), and in area V2 they respond preferentially to corners or junctions (13), whereas in V4 they prefer more complex feature arrangements (14).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Anzai, 2007, Neurons in monkey visual area V2 encode combinations of orientations, Nat Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    The function of the ventral stream is object recognition.

    “The function of the ventral stream is object recognition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The P system conducts high-resolution visual information to cortex.

    “The P system originates with LGN neurons with smaller cell bodies and, in contrast, conducts high-resolution visual information to cortex and is involved in processing of fine-grained stimulus details and object identification (2,6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] Merigan, 1993, How parallel are the primate visual pathways?, Ann Rev Neuroscience source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [6] Norman, 2002, Two visual systems and two theories of perception: An attempt to reconcile the constructivist and ecological approaches, Behav Brain Sci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The M system conducts low-resolution visual information rapidly to cortex.

    “The M system is driven by neurons in the LGN with large cell bodies and, in general, conducts low-resolution visual information rapidly to cortex and is involved in initial attentional capture (typically by stimulus onset/offset and/or movement) and processing of overall stimulus organization (2–5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [2] Merigan, 1993, How parallel are the primate visual pathways?, Ann Rev Neuroscience source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] Vidyasagar, 1999, A neuronal model of attentional spotlight: Parietal guiding the temporal, Brain Res Brain Res Rev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [4] Fenske, 2006, Top-down facilitation of visual object recognition: Object-based and context-based contributions, Prog Brain Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Steinman, 1997, Transient visual attention is dominated by the magnocellular stream, Vision Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    In the retina/LGN, receptive fields respond preferentially to spots of light.

    “The size and complexity of receptive fields increases as one progresses through the visual hierarchy: in the retina/LGN receptive fields respond preferentially to spots of light, in V1 they are tuned for orientation (preferring lines or bars) (12), and in area V2 they respond preferentially to corners or junctions (13), whereas in V4 they prefer more complex feature arrangements (14).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Functions of the dorsal stream include eye movement control, action guidance, initial attention modulation, motion perception, and visual/somatosensory integration.

    “Functions of the dorsal stream include eye movement control, action guidance, initial attention modulation, motion perception, and visual/somatosensory integration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    MT/MST mediate global motion and eye movements.

    “For instance, while V1 is involved with measuring local motion (of small objects), as signals move to higher cortical areas, processing of greater areas of visual space become possible such that V3 is involved in global motion (of larger, more complex objects), and MT/MST mediate global motion and eye movements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The size and complexity of receptive fields increases as one progresses through the visual hierarchy.

    “The size and complexity of receptive fields increases as one progresses through the visual hierarchy: in the retina/LGN receptive fields respond preferentially to spots of light, in V1 they are tuned for orientation (preferring lines or bars) (12), and in area V2 they respond preferentially to corners or junctions (13), whereas in V4 they prefer more complex feature arrangements (14).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [12] Hubel, 1962, Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex, J Physiol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [13] Anzai, 2007, Neurons in monkey visual area V2 encode combinations of orientations, Nat Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [14] Pasupathy, 2002, Population coding of shape in area V4, Nat Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The M and P pathways project mainly to the dorsal and ventral streams, respectively, although there is significant interaction between these streams.

    “The M and P pathways project mainly to the dorsal (“where,” parieto-occipital) and ventral (“what,” tempero-occipital) streams, respectively, although there is significant interaction between these streams.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Perceptual functions are frequently disrupted in schizophrenia.

    “However, perceptual functions are frequently disrupted in schizophrenia, and thus this domain has been included in the CNTRICS (Cognitive Neuroscience Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia) project.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Gain control interactions amplify or attenuate the signal and thus affect integrity of sensory registration.

    “These interactions amplify or attenuate the signal and thus affect integrity of sensory registration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    M pathway neurons show a steeply rising increase in response to low-contrast stimuli, which reaches a saturation level once luminance contrast reaches approximately 16%.

    “Another example of gain control involves the M pathway where neurons show a steeply rising increase in response to low-contrast stimuli, which reaches a saturation-level once luminance contrast reaches approximately 16% (7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Kaplan, 2003, The M, P, and K pathways of the primate visual system

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The M system is involved in processing of overall stimulus organization.

    “The M system is driven by neurons in the LGN with large cell bodies and, in general, conducts low-resolution visual information rapidly to cortex and is involved in initial attentional capture (typically by stimulus onset/offset and/or movement) and processing of overall stimulus organization (2–5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [2] Merigan, 1993, How parallel are the primate visual pathways?, Ann Rev Neuroscience source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] Vidyasagar, 1999, A neuronal model of attentional spotlight: Parietal guiding the temporal, Brain Res Brain Res Rev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [4] Fenske, 2006, Top-down facilitation of visual object recognition: Object-based and context-based contributions, Prog Brain Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Steinman, 1997, Transient visual attention is dominated by the magnocellular stream, Vision Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The P pathway has high spatial resolution, does not respond to low contrast, is color tuned, and has a slow response.

    “The P pathway has high spatial resolution, does not respond to low contrast, is color tuned, and has a slow response1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The M pathway has low spatial resolution, detects low contrast and motion, is color-blind, and has a fast response.

    “For instance, the M pathway has low spatial resolution, detects low contrast and motion, is color-blind, and has a fast response (7,8).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7] Kaplan, 2003, The M, P, and K pathways of the primate visual system

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8] Kaplan, 1991, The receptive field structure of retinal ganglion cells in cat and monkey

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In V4, receptive fields prefer more complex feature arrangements.

    “The size and complexity of receptive fields increases as one progresses through the visual hierarchy: in the retina/LGN receptive fields respond preferentially to spots of light, in V1 they are tuned for orientation (preferring lines or bars) (12), and in area V2 they respond preferentially to corners or junctions (13), whereas in V4 they prefer more complex feature arrangements (14).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Pasupathy, 2002, Population coding of shape in area V4, Nat Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In V1, receptive fields are tuned for orientation, preferring lines or bars.

    “The size and complexity of receptive fields increases as one progresses through the visual hierarchy: in the retina/LGN receptive fields respond preferentially to spots of light, in V1 they are tuned for orientation (preferring lines or bars) (12), and in area V2 they respond preferentially to corners or junctions (13), whereas in V4 they prefer more complex feature arrangements (14).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Hubel, 1962, Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex, J Physiol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Light around a spot inhibits neurons from firing.

    “Light around the spot, such as occurs when a uniform field of light is presented, will inhibit neurons from firing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    V1 is involved with measuring local motion of small objects.

    “For instance, while V1 is involved with measuring local motion (of small objects), as signals move to higher cortical areas, processing of greater areas of visual space become possible such that V3 is involved in global motion (of larger, more complex objects), and MT/MST mediate global motion and eye movements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The CNTRICS project is likely to remedy the omission of perceptual assessment from clinical trials.

    “This situation is likely to be remedied through the CNTRICS (Cognitive Neuroscience Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia) project.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    V3 is involved in global motion of larger, more complex objects.

    “For instance, while V1 is involved with measuring local motion (of small objects), as signals move to higher cortical areas, processing of greater areas of visual space become possible such that V3 is involved in global motion (of larger, more complex objects), and MT/MST mediate global motion and eye movements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Some LGN neurons respond to larger spots of light and others respond to smaller spots of light.

    “Some neurons in the LGN respond to larger spots of light (i.e., have larger receptive fields), and others respond to smaller spots of light (i.e., have smaller receptive fields).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The dorsal stream incorporates areas V3 and middle temporal/medial superior temporal area (MT/MST).

    “In the parietal/occipital region, the dorsal stream incorporates areas V3 and middle temporal/medial superior temporal area (MT/MST).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The visual system is a useful system for evaluating basic concepts of perceptual dysfunction in schizophrenia.

    “A great deal of work has been done on visual processing in schizophrenia, and the visual system is well-characterized from a physiological point of view in normal subjects and is a useful system for evaluating basic concepts of perceptual dysfunction in schizophrenia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The visual system is well-characterized from a physiological point of view in normal subjects.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    P pathway neurons are less responsive at lower contrasts, but their responses do not saturate at higher contrasts.

    “Thus, they are less responsive at lower contrasts, but their responses do not saturate at higher contrasts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Larger contrast sensitivity deficits were found when stimuli were presented dynamically rather than statically, suggesting greater M-pathway than P-pathway impairment.

    “Similarly, larger contrast sensitivity deficits were found when stimuli were presented dynamically rather than statically, also suggesting greater M-pathway, than P-pathway, impairment (19).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Keri, 2002, Spatiotemporal visual processing in schizophrenia, J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    To the extent that P-pathway dysfunction occurs, patient curves show decreased gain at low luminance contrast and a lower plateau, indicating decreased signal amplification.

    “To the extent that P-pathway dysfunction occurs, patient curves show decreased gain at low luminance contrast and a lower plateau, indicating decreased signal amplification, as in the M-pathway.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An NMDA deficit would result in decreased amplification and less lateral inhibition.

    “Thus, an NMDA deficit would result in decreased amplification and less lateral inhibition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    In V1, there are contextual influences on local processing, and at higher levels, possibly as early as V2, integration occurs in terms of global grouping of contextual structure.

    “In V1, there are contextual influences on local processing, and at higher levels, possibly as early as V2, integration occurs in terms of global grouping of contextual structure (e.g., contours) (Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Motion is signaled by direction-sensitive cells in V1 and then pooled by MT neurons with larger receptive fields and center-surround antagonism.

    “Motion is signaled by direction-sensitive cells in V1 and then pooled by MT neurons with: 1) larger receptive fields, and 2) center-surround antagonism (as a likely substrate for gain control).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    A disruptive context has less influence on patients than on controls, arguing against nonspecific deficits or lack of attention as an underlying cause of differences.

    “Importantly, like Dakin et al. (27), these authors find that a disruptive context has less influence on patients than on controls, arguing against nonspecific deficits or lack of attention as an underlying cause of differences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [27] Dakin, 2005, Weak suppression of visual context in chronic schizophrenia, Curr Biol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [33] Tadin, 2006, Weakened center-surround interactions in visual motion processing in schizophrenia, J Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mechanisms of integration include direct connectivity between neurons as well as feedback.

    “Mechanisms of integration include direct connectivity between neurons (e.g., excitation/inhibition and synchronization) as well as feedback (18).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Angelucci, 2002, Circuits for local and global signal integration in primary visual cortex, J Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Cells in later visual areas code more global/complex properties by integrating the response of neurons with smaller receptive fields that code local form and motion.

    “Cells in later visual areas code more global/complex properties by integrating the response of neurons with smaller receptive fields that code, for example, (local) form and motion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Behavioral studies have found contrast sensitivity deficits across spatial frequencies, often with thresholds relatively low (e.g., <10% contrast), limiting P-pathway involvement.

    “Although behavioral studies have found contrast sensitivity deficits across spatial frequencies, often thresholds are relatively low (e.g., < 10% contrast; [20]), limiting P-pathway involvement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Slaghuis, 1998, Contrast sensitivity for stationary and drifting spatial frequency gratings in positive- and negative-symptom schizophrenia, J Abnorm Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Features that bias stimuli toward the M-pathway include high temporal frequency, low spatial frequency, low absolute luminance, and low contrast.

    “Nevertheless, features that bias stimuli toward the M-pathway include high temporal frequency, low spatial frequency, low absolute luminance, and low contrast.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Gain control plays an important role in perception of contrast and motion.

    “Gain control plays an important role in our perception of contrast and motion in that it allows sensory subsystems to maximize the response-difference arising from different stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The reduced susceptibility to the contrast illusion in patients is consistent with decreased center-surround antagonism and hence decreased contrast gain control in schizophrenia patients.

    “These results are consistent with decreased center-surround antagonism and hence decreased contrast gain control in schizophrenia patients.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Stimulus response properties of M- and P-neurons overlap significantly, making differentiation difficult, particularly in behavioral studies.

    “Stimulus response properties of M- and P-neurons overlap significantly, making differentiation difficult, particularly in behavioral studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Gain control in the contrast illusion might be due to short-range lateral interactions, such as GABAergic projections.

    “Gain control in this illusion might be due to short-range lateral interactions (e.g., γ-aminobutyric acid [GABA]-ergic projections).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Integration underpins Gestalt grouping phenomena and object recognition.

    “Integration underpins Gestalt grouping phenomena and object recognition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    NMDA receptors amplify responses to isolated stimuli as well as amplifying the effects of lateral inhibition.

    “For instance, NMDA receptors amplify responses to isolated stimuli as well as amplifying the effects of lateral inhibition (e.g., increase surround antagonism of center receptive field responses) (15).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Daw, 1993, The role of NMDA receptors in information processing, Ann Rev Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Patients with schizophrenia were much less susceptible to the contrast illusion, with 12 of 15 patients being more accurate than the most accurate control.

    “Patients with schizophrenia were much less susceptible to the illusion, with 12 of 15 patients being more accurate (less biased) than the most accurate control (27).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Dakin, 2005, Weak suppression of visual context in chronic schizophrenia, Curr Biol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Gain control and integration are both involved in the perception of complex stimuli.

    “Gain control and integration are both involved in the perception of complex stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sensory systems use gain control to adapt and optimize responses so that they can then be successfully integrated at higher levels of the visual system via recurrent interactions between areas.

    “Sensory systems use gain control to adapt and optimize responses so that they can then be successfully integrated at higher levels of the visual system via recurrent interactions between areas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Patients with schizophrenia show preferential M-pathway dysfunction, although deficits have also been observed in parvocellular processing.

    “Patients with schizophrenia show preferential M-pathway dysfunction (21,22,28,35–38), although deficits have also been observed in parvocellular processing (19,20).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [21] Butler, 2007, Subcortical visual dysfunction in schizophrenia drives secondary cortical impairments, Brain source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [22] Butler, 2005, Early-stage visual processing and cortical amplification deficits in schizophrenia, Arch Gen Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [28] Kim, 2006, Magnocellular contributions to impaired motion processing in schizophrenia, Schizophr Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [35] Cadenhead, 1998, Transient versus sustained visual channels in the visual backward masking deficits of schizophrenia patients, Biol Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [36] Kim, 2005, Dysfunction of early-stage visual processing in schizophrenia: Harmonic analysis, Schizophr Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [37] Slaghuis, 2003, The effect of peripheral visual motion on focal contrast sensitivity in positive- and negative-symptom schizophrenia, Neuropsychologia source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [38] Keri, 2004, Vernier threshold in patients with schizophrenia and in their unaffected siblings, Neuropsychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] Keri, 2002, Spatiotemporal visual processing in schizophrenia, J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] Slaghuis, 1998, Contrast sensitivity for stationary and drifting spatial frequency gratings in positive- and negative-symptom schizophrenia, J Abnorm Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The finding that nicotine increases gain control in visual cortex might be important in understanding self-medication with smoking and strengthens the hypothesis of weak gain control in schizophrenia.

    “This might be important in understanding “self-medication” with smoking and strengthens the hypothesis of weak gain control in schizophrenia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The P-pathway also exhibits nonlinear gain characteristics, although less so than the M-pathway.

    “The P-pathway also exhibits nonlinear gain characteristics, although less so than the M-pathway.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Processing is substantially faster via the dorsal stream, which would permit it to prime ventral stream areas.

    “Processing is substantially faster via the dorsal stream, which would permit it to prime ventral stream areas (72–74).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [72] Foxe, 2002, Flow of activation from V1 to frontal cortex in humans, Exp Brain Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [73] Schmolesky, 1998, Signal timing across the macaque visual system, J Neurophysiol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [74] Schroeder, 1998, A spatiotemporal profile of visual system activation revealed by current source density analysis in the awake macaque, Cereb Cortex source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Patients with schizophrenia do not exhibit a difference in flank facilitation, suggesting a failure in ability to integrate the collinear flankers.

    “Patients with schizophrenia do not exhibit such a difference, suggesting a failure in ability to integrate the collinear flankers (53).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Keri, 2005, Lateral interactions in the visual cortex of patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, Psychol Med source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Deficits in object recognition, grouping, perceptual closure, face processing, and reading occur in schizophrenia.

    “These include deficits in object recognition, grouping, perceptual closure, face processing, and reading (54–62).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [54] Place, 1980, Perceptual organization in schizophrenia, J Abnorm Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [55] Kurylo, 2007, Perceptual organization by proximity and similarity in schizophrenia, Schizophr Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [56] Rabinowicz, 1996, Dot Enumeration Perceptual Organization Task (DEPOT): Evidence for a short-term visual memory deficit in schizophrenia, J Abnorm Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [57] Silverstein, 2000, Perceptual organization, the disorganization syndrome, and context processing in chronic schizophrenia, Schizophr Res source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [58] Rief, 1991, Visual perceptual organization in schizophrenic patients, Br J Clin Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [59] Doniger, 2002, Impaired visual object recognition and dorsal/ventral stream interaction in schizophrenia, Arch Gen Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [60] Saccuzzo, 1986, Information-processing abnormalities: Trait- and state-dependent components, Schizophr Bull source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] Kerr, 1993, Emotion perception in schizophrenia: Specific deficit or further evidence of generalized poor performance?, J Abnorm Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [62] Kohler, 2000, Emotion recognition deficit in schizophrenia: Association with symptomatology and cognition, Biol Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Visual integration deficits are seen in contrast, contour, form, and motion processing in schizophrenia.

    “Visual integration deficits are seen in contrast, contour, form, and motion processing in schizophrenia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A strength of both gain control and integration constructs is that they are grounded in both computational and cognitive theory and known brain function in humans and animals.

    “A strength of both constructs is that they are grounded in both computational and cognitive theory and known brain function in humans and animals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Gain control is readily measured in humans with tasks such as contrast sensitivity, contrast illusions, visual evoked potential contrast paradigms activating the M pathway, and pop-out stimuli.

    “First, this construct is readily measured in humans with such tasks as contrast sensitivity, contrast illusions, visual evoked potential contrast paradigms activating the M pathway, and pop-out stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Both gain control and integration constructs are essential for perceptual function.

    “Both constructs are essential for perceptual function.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    There are explicit animal models of gain control that include recording of evoked potentials in cats and monkeys, particularly after NMDA antagonist infusion.

    “Fifth, there are explicit animal models that include recording of evoked potentials in cats and monkeys, particularly after NMDA antagonist infusion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is a moderate amount of clarity of the understanding of the mechanisms of gain control.

    “Fourth, there is a moderate amount of clarity of the understanding of the mechanisms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Measures of gain control are highly amenable for use in human imaging studies.

    “Seventh, measures are highly amenable for use in human imaging studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Patients with schizophrenia had decreased amplitude of the dorsal stream-generated P100-evoked potential component, which occurred earlier than impairment in the ventral stream-generated closure negativity (Ncl) component associated with object recognition.

    “Patients also had decreased amplitude of the dorsal stream-generated P100-evoked potential component, which occurred earlier in time than impairment in the ventral stream-generated closure negativity (Ncl) component associated with object recognition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] Doniger, 2002, Impaired visual object recognition and dorsal/ventral stream interaction in schizophrenia, Arch Gen Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Testing of gain control and integration is straightforward (cards/computers).

    “1) testing is straightforward (cards/computers)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Processing of motion involves integration, because motion is signaled by direction-sensitive cells in V1 whose responses are pooled by MT neurons with larger receptive fields to signal complex motion.

    “processing of motion also clearly involves integration, because motion is signaled by direction-sensitive cells in V1 whose responses are then pooled by MT neurons with larger receptive fields to signal complex motion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Both gain control and integration are complicated constructs.

    “However, it is important to note that both gain control and integration are complicated constructs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    There is much evidence for integration involving V2 and higher areas in healthy subjects.

    “There is much evidence for this in healthy subjects”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Deficits in paradigms such as contour integration are thought to be related to NMDA-modulated lateral excitation among the spatial filters signaling these elements as well as GABA-related inhibition of noise.

    “Deficits in paradigms such as contour integration are thought to be related to NMDA-modulated lateral excitation among the spatial filters signaling these elements as well as GABA-related inhibition of noise.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Imaging visual areas is straightforward, because they are large and many of them are located near the cortical surface.

    “4) imaging visual areas is straightforward, because they are large and many of them are located near the cortical surface”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Animal models of integration deficits have not been developed.

    “Fifth, animal models of integration deficits have not been developed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Integration is readily measured in humans with grouping, perceptual closure, face processing, and contour integration tasks.

    “First, integration is readily measured in humans with grouping, perceptual closure, face processing, and contour integration tasks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In vision, gain control is generally related to mechanisms in the LGN and visual cortex.

    “In vision, gain control is generally related to mechanisms in the LGN and visual cortex”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Both gain control and integration constructs have been reliably measured with a range of paradigms.

    “Both constructs have been reliably measured with a range of paradigms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Behavioral tests can elicit superior performance in schizophrenia, ruling out attentional/top down effects.

    “2) behavioral tests can elicit superior performance in schizophrenia, ruling out attentional/top down effects”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    There are moderate links between gain control and functional outcome.

    “Finally, there are moderate links to functional outcome, and more work is needed in this area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Some tasks have been designed so that reduced gain control or integration leads to superior performance compared with control subjects, ruling out the possibility that the impairment reflects a generalized deficit.

    “Moreover, some tasks have been designed so that reduced gain control or integration leads to superior performance compared with control subjects, ruling out the possibility that the impairment reflects a generalized deficit.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Drug models (e.g., ketamine) and animal models (macaque) are established for gain control and integration.

    “5) drug models (e.g., ketamine) and animal models (macaque) are established.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The underlying neural circuitry of gain control and integration is becoming clearer.

    “3) the underlying neural circuitry is becoming clearer”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is a relatively strong amount of clarity of the mechanisms of integration.

    “Fourth, there is a relatively strong amount of clarity of the mechanisms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    There is strong evidence of impairment in gain control in schizophrenia.

    “Second, there is strong evidence of impairment in schizophrenia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The neurophysiology of both gain control and integration processes is likely to involve effects of glutamatergic activity at NMDA receptors and interactions between M- and P-pathways.

    “The neurophysiology of both processes is likely to involve effects of glutamatergic activity at NMDA receptors and interactions between M- and P-pathways.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Measures of integration are highly amenable for use in human imaging studies.

    “Seventh, measures are highly amenable for use in human imaging studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    There is strong evidence of impairment in integration in schizophrenia.

    “Second, there is strong evidence of impairment in schizophrenia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
88 of 88

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Tests of perception are not widely used by neuropsychologists.

    “This omission is in one sense appropriate, because a goal of MATRICS was to identify existing neuropsychological tests that are useful for clinical trials of schizophrenia, and tests of perception are not widely used by neuropsychologists.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The visual system is well-characterized from a physiological point of view in normal subjects.

    “A great deal of work has been done on visual processing in schizophrenia, and the visual system is well-characterized from a physiological point of view in normal subjects and is a useful system for evaluating basic concepts of perceptual dysfunction in schizophrenia.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Perceptual organization can be viewed as relying on two main fundamental mechanisms: gain control and integration, both of which could be impaired in schizophrenia.

    “According to Butler et al. (2008) this phenomenon of perceptual organization can be viewed as relying on two main fundamental mechanisms: gain control and integration, both of which could be impaired in schizophrenia.”

    From What visual illusions teach us about schizophrenia (2014) · cites this paper as Butler et al., 2008

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Authors
Butler, P. D., Silverstein, S. M., & Dakin, S. C.
Affiliations
  • Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research (US)
  • University College London (GB)
Corresponding author
Butler, Pamela D.
ORCID
Venue
Biological Psychiatry
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2008-07
Volume
64
Issue
1
Pages
40-47
ISSN
0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.03.023
PMC
PMC2435292
OpenAlex
W2000433175
Semantic Scholar
1d208b4e9d2419ffa7c078e7af9ceef4d28590b3
Cited by
472
References
92
Citations by year
2026: 24 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 20
FWCI
12.61
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Wellcome Trust
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH066374, R01 MH66374)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hallucinations in medical conditions
Keywords
schizophrenia, visual perception, gain control, visual integration, cognitive rehabilitation, perceptual tests, auditory processing, olfactory processing, somatosensory processing
MeSH terms
Animals, Brain Mapping, Cognition Disorders, Cooperative Behavior, Humans, Neuropsychological Tests, Perceptual Disorders, Schizophrenia, Schizophrenic Psychology, Antipsychotic Agents, Visual Pathways, Visual Perception, Drug Design, Biomedical Research

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

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