Sustaining attention to simple tasks: A meta-analytic review of the neural mechanisms of vigilant attention.

May combine two claims.

Across all 67 included VA experiments, the meta-analysis found significant convergence in 14 separate clusters, including right-dominant pre-SMA/midcingulate, inferior PFC, anterior insula, thalamus, right midlateral PFC, TPJ, IPS, occipital and temporo-occipital areas, and cerebellar vermis.

“The meta-analysis of all 67 VA experiments revealed significant convergence in 14 distinct clusters (Table 1 and Fig. 1): bilateral (though right-dominant) pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) and midcingulate cortex, extending to more anterior medial prefrontal cortex (PFC); bilateral inferior PFC (inferior frontal junction and dorsal area 44), extending to ventral premotor cortex (vPMC) in the”

May combine two claims.

The ALE meta-analysis of 67 neuroimaging experiments found that VA engages an extended cortico-subcortical network with predominant right-lateralization.

“Our study delineated the neural network involved in VA (i.e., sustaining attention to repetitive, cognitively unchallenging tasks) by means of an ALE meta-analysis of 67 neuroimaging experiments. We found that VA engages an extended cortico-subcortical network with a predominant right-lateralization.”

May combine two claims.

Right midlateral PFC showed stronger convergence with longer VA maintenance, in covert versus overt responses, in simple detection versus discrimination tasks, and in variable versus fixed temporal structure, while convergence in this region was independent of stimulus modality.

“Our analyses revealed that the right midlateral PFC showed stronger convergence (i) with longer VA maintenance, (ii) in tasks with covert versus overt responses, (iii) in simple detection versus discrimination tasks, and (iv) in tasks with a variable versus fixed temporal structure of event occurrence. At the same time, convergence in this region was independent of stimulus modality.”

May combine two claims.

Our analyses yielded stronger convergence in bilateral IFJ with longer VA maintenance (right IFJ only), in overt versus covert responses, in discrimination versus detection tasks, and in temporally fixed versus variable event occurrence.

“Our analyses yielded stronger convergence in bilateral IFJ – a region in the vicinity of the junction of the inferior frontal sulcus and the inferior precentral sulcus – (i) with longer VA maintenance (here restricted to right IFJ), (ii) in tasks with overt versus covert responses, (iii) in discrimination versus detection tasks, and (iv) in tasks with temporally fixed versus variable event”

May combine two claims.

A small cluster of convergence was observed in the ponto-mesencephalic tegmentum, significantly more active in VA-related tasks requiring an overt motor versus non-motor response.

“We observed a small cluster of convergence in the ponto-mesencephalic tegmentum, which was significantly more active in VA-related tasks that required an overt motor (vs. non-motor) response.”

May combine two claims.

Differential analyses revealed stronger convergence in central parts of the medial PFC cluster (pre-SMA and aMCC) with longer VA maintenance; pre-SMA showed stronger convergence in overt motor versus non-motor tasks, while medial superior frontal gyrus showed stronger convergence in detection versus discrimination tasks and in variable versus fixed temporal structure.

“Our differential analyses revealed stronger convergence in central parts of this cluster (i.e., pre-SMA and aMCC) with longer VA maintenance. Further, the mid-dorsal part of this cluster (i.e., pre-SMA) showed stronger convergence in tasks with overt motor (vs. non-motor) responses, while the most anterior part of this cluster (i.e., the medial superior frontal gyrus, mSFG) did so in detection (vs”

May combine two claims.

Analyses revealed significant convergence of right TPJ activity across all experiments, particularly for longer VA maintenance.

“Our analyses revealed significant convergence of right TPJ activity across all experiments but in particular for longer VA maintenance.”

May combine two claims.

The meta-analysis revealed a network that substantially overlaps with the right-lateralized ventral attention network, which has been associated with stimulus-driven bottom-up reorienting of attention.

“Our meta-analysis revealed a network that substantially overlaps with the right-lateralized ventral attention network (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002), which has consistently been associated with the stimulus-driven (bottom-up) reorienting of attention (Corbetta et al., 2008).”

• cites Corbetta & Shulman, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Corbetta et al., 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Meta-analyses yielded stronger convergence in the cerebellar vermis with longer VA maintenance, in tasks with overt versus covert responses, and in tasks with fixed versus variable temporal structures of event occurrence.

“Our meta-analyses yielded stronger convergence in the cerebellar vermis (i) with longer VA maintenance, (ii) in tasks with overt versus covert responses, and (iii) in tasks with fixed versus variable temporal structures of event occurrence.”

May combine two claims.

Analyses yielded stronger convergence in right anterior IPS and adjacent inferior parietal cortex with longer VA maintenance, in discrimination versus simple detection tasks, and in tasks with fixed versus variable temporal structures of event occurrence.

“Beyond the main effect, our analyses yielded stronger convergence in right anterior IPS and adjacent inferior parietal cortex (i) with longer VA maintenance, (ii) in discrimination versus simple detection tasks, and (iii) in tasks with fixed versus variable temporal structures of event occurrence.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The capacity to keep attention continuously focused on a task is a core dimension of attentional control, separate from shifting, dividing, or selecting the focus of attention.

“This ability to keep one’s mind continuously focused on a particular task is considered a fundamental dimension of attentional control, distinct from shifting or dividing the attentional focus or controlling its selectivity”

• cites Mirsky, Anthony, Duncan, Ahearn, & Kellam, 1991Not checked yet

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• cites Posner & Petersen, 1990Not checked yet

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• cites Raz & Buhle, 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Peak preparedness lasts only a few seconds, so sustaining readiness requires repeated preparation.

“In these experiments on preparatory attention it was shown that peak levels of preparedness cannot be maintained for more than a few seconds, requiring repreparation processes for sustaining readiness (Allegria, 1974; Gottsdanker, 1975).”

• cites Allegria, 1974Not checked yet

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• cites Gottsdanker, 1975Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Simple, repetitive tasks that demand continuous attention are linked to greater stress responses and higher subjective effort than more complex, variable tasks.

“simple, repetitive tasks requiring continuous attention were often found to be associated with increased stress responses and higher subjective effort expenditure, as compared with more complex, variable tasks”

• cites Frankenhaeuser & Gardell, 1976Not checked yet

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• cites Johansson, Aronsson, & Lindström, 1978Not checked yet

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• cites Thackray, 1981Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Simple, repetitive, over-learned tasks such as stimulus detection or discrimination depend on activating and implementing a task schema.

“According to this framework, performing simple, repetitive and therefore easily over-learnt tasks such as simple stimulus detection or discrimination is based on activating and implementing a task schema (i.e. a memorized set of input–output rules).”

May combine two claims.

Stuss et al. identified four supervisory processes as essential for maintaining performance in VA tasks: monitoring task-schema activation, energizing the task schema, inhibiting conflicting schemata, and monitoring performance.

“Stuss et al. (1995) considered four supervisory-system processes as essential for preventing such situations and maintaining performance in VA tasks over time (see also Shallice et al., 2008): (i) monitoring the activation level of the task schema, (ii) (re)activating (“energizing”) the task schema, (iii) inhibiting conflicting schemata, and (iv) monitoring performance (i.e., checking the Appropri”

• cites Stuss et al., 1995Not checked yet

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• cites Shallice et al., 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

VA is supported by bottom-up routine processing of a simple task schema together with top-down supervisory modulations that help repeatedly implement the relevant schema.

“Thus, according to this framework, VA is supported by a combination of stimulus-triggered (“bottom-up”) routine processing, in line with a fairly simple task schema, and supervisory-system (“top-down”) modulations thereof, which facilitate the recurrent implementation of the relevant schema.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The endogenous refresh system has been described as control processes carried out by a supervisory attentional system.

“On a conceptual level, this endogenous “refresh” system was previously described (Shallice, Stuss, Alexander, Picton, & Derkzen, 2008; Stuss et al., 1995) as a set of control processes implemented by a supervisory attentional system (cf. Norman & Shallice, 1986; Shallice & Burgess, 1996).”

• cites Shallice, Stuss, Alexander, Picton, & Derkzen, 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Stuss et al., 1995Not checked yet

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• cites Norman & Shallice, 1986Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Laboratory research indicates that sustaining attention to simple, monotonous tasks feels effortful and demanding and produces subjective strain or fatigue over time.

“First of all, laboratory research corroborates the aforementioned anecdotal evidence and observations in the field by showing that sustaining attention to simple, monotonous tasks (i.e., VA) is perceived as effortful and highly demanding, inducing subjective strain or even fatigue over time (Grier et al., 2003; Szalma et al., 2004; Warm et al., 2008).”

• cites Grier et al., 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Szalma et al., 2004Not checked yet

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• cites Warm et al., 2008Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The 10-second cutoff is conservative and broadly matches earlier distinctions between sustained and transient attention.

“This makes our 10-s cut-off a rather conservative choice and roughly agrees with what others have previously considered a sustained (vs. transient) allocation of attention (cf. Cabeza et al., 2003; Robertson, Ridgeway et al., 1997; Thakral & Slotnick, 2009).”

• cites Cabeza et al., 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Robertson, Ridgeway et al., 1997Not checked yet

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• cites Thakral & Slotnick, 2009Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A selected schema that is not continually used loses activation over several seconds, reducing its ability to activate lower-level component schemata.

“If it is not continually used, a selected schema will gradually lose activation over several seconds, thereby decreasing its power to activate its lower-level component schemata.”

• cites Stuss et al., 1995Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In routine tasks, relevant schemata are automatically triggered by appropriate input without supervisory control.

“Theoretically, relevant schemata in routine tasks are triggered automatically by appropriate input, without the need for supervisory control.”

May combine two claims.

Performance on a task worsens over time, and this worsening is more likely when the task is cognitively simple and repetitive.

“Intriguingly, such decrements are even more likely if the task is cognitively simple and repetitive.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · hedged

  “Anecdotal as well as experimental evidence shows that it is usually harder to maintain attention in intellectually unchallenging, monotonous situations than in cognitively demanding but interesting ones”

• cites Kahneman, 1973Not checked yet

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• cites Manly et al., 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Parasuraman, 1984Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These accounts assume a growing imbalance between perceived costs and benefits of maintaining performance over time, leading to a strategic reduction of effort on the VA task.

“Broadly, these accounts assume an increasing imbalance between perceived costs and benefits of maintaining performance over time, resulting in a strategic reduction of effort invested into the VA task at hand.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Arousal is the net result of several neuromodulatory systems; it drives general cortical excitability and is a basic precondition and modulator of vigilant attention.

“In our view, “arousal” is the net result from the joint action of several neuromodulatory brain systems; it drives the general excitability of cortical neurons and thus constitutes a basic precondition and modulator of (vigilant) attention (Fischer, Langner, Birbaumer, & Brocke, 2008; Pfaff, 2006; Sarter, Givens, & Bruno, 2001; see also Humphreys & Revelle, 1984).”

• cites Fischer, Langner, Birbaumer, & Brocke, 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Pfaff, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Sarter, Givens, & Bruno, 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Prolonged VA maintenance has been related to increased tense arousal and decreased energetic arousal.

“As recent research has shown, however, such attempts at compensation might be in vain: using self-report scales for measuring subjective arousal based on Thayer’s (1978) two-dimensional arousal model, it was found that prolonged VA maintenance was related to increases in avoidance-related “tense arousal” but decreases in approach-related “energetic arousal” (Helton & Warm, 2008; Szalma et al., 200”

• cites Helton & Warm, 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Szalma et al., 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Generalized arousal is thought to decrease with situational predictability, and effort to compensate for this decrease may contribute to the perceived workload of simple repetitive VA tasks.

“As generalized arousal is thought to decrease with the predictability of the situation (Pfaff, 2006), one of the processes that contribute to the perceived high workload of simple, repetitive VA tasks might be the exertion of effort to compensate for the task-induced decrease in arousal (Fischer et al., 2008; O’Hanlon, 1981; Robertson & Garavan, 2004; Thackray, 1981).”

• cites Pfaff, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Fischer et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites O’Hanlon, 1981Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In discrimination tasks, stimuli require deeper processing and the stimulus-response mapping is more complex than in simple detection tasks.

“In discrimination tasks, as compared with simple detection ones, stimuli need be processed more “deeply,” as identification is required, and the stimulus–response (S-R) mapping is more complex, as each trial can either require the pre-defined response (to the “go” stimulus) or require withholding this response (to the “no-go” stimulus) (cf. Cavina-Pratesi et al., 2006).”

• cites Cavina-Pratesi et al., 2006Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The self-regulation account implies an imbalance between the subjective costs and benefits of maintaining VA over time.

“Thus, the account implies an imbalance between subjective costs (i.e. effort exertion) and benefits (i.e. intrinsic rewards) of maintaining VA over time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The three accounts of time-related VA decline do not explicitly consider motivational issues.

“Notably, all three above-mentioned accounts of time-related VA decline do not consider motivational issues, at least not explicitly.”

May combine two claims.

The absence of convergence in primary motor cortex is most likely due to inconsistent right versus left hand use across experiments and to many experiments contrasting VA activity against motor control conditions with regular button presses.

“The absence of convergence in the primary motor cortex most likely results from the inconsistent use of the right versus left hand across experiments as well as from the fact that a substantial number of experiments (n = 11) contrasted VA-related activity against motor control conditions that involved regular button presses.”

May combine two claims.

Temporal variation of stimulus presentations hampers implicit preparation for early potential stimulus moments, so VA must be maintained at a more stable level over the entire time.

“Conversely, temporal variation of stimulus presentations hampers implicit preparation for (early) moments of potential stimulus occurrence (Niemi & Näätänen, 1981; Steinborn & Langner, 2011; 2012), and therefore, VA needs to be maintained at a more stable level over the entire time.”

• cites Niemi & Näätänen, 1981Not checked yet

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• cites Steinborn & Langner, 2011; 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The terms arousal and sustained attention have sometimes been used interchangeably.

“Although referring to non-identical (albeit related) constructs, the terms “arousal” and “sustained attention” (comprising the less inclusive concept “vigilant attention”) have sometimes been used interchangeably (see Parasuraman, 1984, for a related discussion).”

• cites Parasuraman, 1984Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Langner et al. treat sustained attentional demand as necessary but not sufficient for the typical time-related VA decrement.

“Thus, Langner, Willmes et al. (2010) consider sustained attentional demand a necessary condition (in line with resource theory) but not a sufficient one (in contrast to resource theory) for the typical time-related VA decrement to occur.”

• cites Langner, Willmes et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This switching of processing priorities can be integrated into all three accounts, producing either less resource allocation to the VA task, interference from task-unrelated processing, or both.

“This switching of processing priorities can be incorporated into all three above accounts, leading either to diminished resource allocation to the VA task, interference from task-unrelated processing, or both.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Subjective strain and objective difficulty in maintaining initial performance are proposed to result from depletion of attentional resources during continuous attention allocation.

“These findings led several researchers to propose that such subjective experiences as well as concurrent objective difficulties in maintaining high (initial) performance levels directly result from a depletion of attentional resources that occurs with the continuous allocation of attention (Grier et al., 2003; Helton & Warm, 2008; Smit, Eling, & Coenen, 2004).”

• cites Grier et al., 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Helton & Warm, 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Smit, Eling, & Coenen, 2004Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

To reduce the file-drawer problem from possible publication bias toward significant results, the search was extended to studies in which VA tasks served as a high-level baseline or control condition.

“To ameliorate the “file drawer” problem arising from a potential publication bias toward significant results (Rosenthal, 1979), we extended the search to studies which included VA tasks that were not the focus of the respective publication but served as a “high-level baseline” or control condition.”

• cites Rosenthal, 1979Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Arousal is not unitary but multi-dimensional, with specialized and generalized subcomponents.

“This is by no means to say that we consider arousal a unitary concept — to the contrary, we take arousal to be multi-dimensional, having specialized and generalized subcomponents (cf. Pfaff, 2006; Pfaff, Ribeiro, Matthews, & Kow, 2008).”

• cites Pfaff, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Pfaff, Ribeiro, Matthews, & Kow, 2008Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Langner et al.'s account introduced self-regulatory power as a mediator that is assumed to remain unaffected during attentionally demanding but intrinsically rewarding tasks, potentially explaining difficulty in simple monotonous tasks.

“In essence, Langner, Willmes et al.’s account introduced the mediator variable “self-regulatory power,” which is assumed to remain unaffected during attentionally demanding but intrinsically rewarding tasks and thus can potentially explain the specific difficulty in upholding attention during intellectually simple, monotonous tasks.”

• cites Langner, Willmes et al., 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

There is substantial evidence for both the fatigue/resource-depletion and boredom/absentmindedness accounts, but neither fits all available data.

“There is ample empirical evidence for both the fatigue/resource-depletion and the boredom/absentmindedness accounts, but neither is consistent with all the available data.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Differences between MNI and Talairach coordinate spaces were handled by linearly transforming Talairach coordinates into MNI coordinates.

“Differences in coordinate spaces (MNI vs. Talairach space) were accounted for by transforming coordinates reported in Talairach space into MNI coordinates using a linear transformation (Lancaster et al., 2007).”

• cites Lancaster et al., 2007Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Direct empirical evidence for the self-regulation account is still sparse.

“It should be noted, though, that the empirical evidence directly supporting this account is sparse as yet.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This decline is thought to reduce the intensity of attention allocated to the task and to weaken goal maintenance.

“This decline, then, is thought to result in: (i) a diminished intensity of attention allocated to the task, leading to a weaker attentional modulation of task-relevant information processing (a state often labeled “mental fatigue” or “resource depletion”), and (ii) diminished goal maintenance, leading to task-irrelevant processing and task-unrelated thoughts (a state often labeled “absentminded”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other work has emphasized that motivational changes with time on task may cause strategic shifts in effort investment during sustained cognitive performance.

“Other work, however, emphasized the relevance of motivational changes with time on task, which may lead to strategic shifts in effort investment during sustained cognitive performance (Boksem & Tops, 2008; Hockey, 1986, 1997).”

• cites Boksem & Tops, 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Hockey, 1986, 1997Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The meta-analysis included 55 eligible studies, with 962 activation foci from 1058 participants across 67 contrasts.

“Based on these criteria, 55 studies were identified as eligible for inclusion into the meta-analysis. Together, these studies reported 962 activation foci obtained from 1058 participants in 67 contrasts (Table A1 in the Appendix).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Within the supervisory-attention framework, resource depletion corresponds to an insufficiently energized task schema.

“In the supervisory-attention framework, resource depletion would correspond to an insufficiently energized task schema.”

May combine two claims.

Breckel et al. (2011) found that RT increased over time and hemodynamic activity decreased in a large detection-related network including bilateral ventrolateral PFC, IFJ, TPJ, anterior insula, and somatosensory cortices, with no significant time-related increases and no reported performance-related neural changes.

“Finally, a recent fMRI study (Breckel, Giessing, & Thiel, 2011) investigated time-on-task effects during a 32-min simple detection task with lateralized motion distractors using standard fMRI. Over time, RT significantly increased, and hemodynamic activity decreased in a large detection-related network including bilateral ventrolateral PFC, IFJ, TPJ, anterior insula, and somatosensory cortices. No”

• cites Breckel, Giessing, & Thiel, 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

This pattern argues against a specific role of right midlateral PFC in mediating speeded motor responses and is consistent with implementing continuous monitoring for relevant external events.

“This pattern argues against a specific role of this area in mediating speeded motor responses but is consistent with implementing a continuous monitoring for relevant external events.”

May combine two claims.

The activation pattern is more consistent with Posner's view that short- and long-term VA are equivalent, because a qualitative difference would predict distinct brain regions rather than quantitative differences within the same network.

“This activation pattern is more consistent with Posner’s view, since assuming a qualitative difference between short- and long-term VA would have predicted the involvement of distinct brain regions rather than mere quantitative differences within the same network.”

May combine two claims.

Lesion effects tended to be stronger in discrimination than detection tasks, suggesting that maintenance and selectivity aspects of attention share neural substrates in damaged frontal and temporoparietal areas.

“The fact that lesion effects tended to be stronger in discrimination than detection tasks suggests that maintenance and selectivity aspects of attention share some neural substrates localized in the damaged frontal and temporoparietal areas.”

May combine two claims.

Malhotra et al. (2009) found that patients with right posterior parietal lesions had an overall deficit in sustained detection and discrimination, but a more severe decline over 8 min occurred only in right-hemisphere patients with neglect and was restricted to discrimination tasks requiring spatial attention.

“A recent study (Malhotra, Coulthard, & Husain, 2009) in patients with right posterior parietal lesions replicated the overall deficit of patients in sustained detection as well as discrimination tasks. A more severe performance decline over 8 min, however, was only found in those right-hemisphere patients that had developed a neglect syndrome, and it was restricted to discrimination tasks that”

• cites Malhotra, Coulthard, & Husain, 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Available data on time-related brain activity changes during VA tasks agree with a right-sided network of frontal, cingulate, insular, parietal, and subcortical regions involved in maintaining VA, applying to both short- and longer-term maintenance to different degrees; these regions constitute the core brain network subserving VA.

“In conclusion, the available data on time-related brain activity changes during VA task performance agree with the notion of a right-sided network of frontal, cingulate, insular, parietal, and subcortical regions involved in maintaining VA. This appears to apply to both short- and longer-term maintenance, albeit to different degrees. We, therefore, argue that it is these regions that constitute”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The second class of processes, sensitive to longer-term changes within minutes to hours, is related to top-down monitoring and energizing of the task schema, modulated by decreasing task engagement over time.

May combine two claims.

It cannot necessarily be inferred that short-term VA maintenance does not involve subprocesses sensitive to long-term modulation, or vice versa.

“From this, however, it may not necessarily be inferred that short-term VA maintenance does not involve any subprocesses that are also sensitive to long-term modulation (e.g. by fatigue) and vice versa.”

May combine two claims.

A role of midlateral PFC in monitoring agrees with patient studies; Shallice et al. (2008) observed a specific impairment in a fast sustained covert target counting task in patients with right lateral PFC lesions.

“A role of the midlateral PFC in monitoring agrees with conclusions from patient studies. In patients with right lateral PFC lesions, Shallice et al. (2008) observed a specific impairment in a fast version of a sustained covert target counting task, which imposed more demands on event monitoring than the slow version.”

• cites Shallice et al. (2008)Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Lim et al.'s results demonstrate involvement of the right midlateral PFC in sustained speeded detection, in line with the meta-analytic finding of stronger convergence in this area for detection compared with discrimination tasks.

“These results are more circumscribed than those of previous PET studies, which may be related to methodological differences, but they again demonstrate an involvement of the right midlateral PFC in sustained speeded detection. This is in line with our results, which revealed significantly stronger convergence of activity in this area for detection compared with discrimination tasks.”

May combine two claims.

Direct neuroimaging studies of positive intraindividual associations between VA maintenance duration and brain activity yielded heterogeneous results, potentially due to methodological differences.

“The few neuroimaging studies that directly examined positive intraindividual associations between VA maintenance duration and brain activity yielded heterogeneous results, potentially due to methodological differences, which range from task parameters to measurement duration to imaging modality.”

May combine two claims.

The specificity of the Coull et al. finding argues against a general role of right prefrontal and inferior parietal areas in regulating arousal and indicates an interaction of maintenance and selectivity aspects of attention in right frontal and parietal cortices.

“This specificity argues against a general role of these areas in regulating arousal (see also Paus et al., 1997). Rather, since a discrimination task poses stronger selectivity demands, it indicates an interaction of maintenance and selectivity aspects of attention in right frontal and parietal cortices, consistent with the above-mentioned findings on right-hemisphere lesions.”

May combine two claims.

The right-lateralization of the VA network confirms previous qualitative reviews and agrees with functional transcranial Doppler and near-infrared spectroscopy studies.

“This lateralization confirms previous qualitative reviews of neuroimaging findings (e.g. Cabeza & Nyberg, 2000; Husain & Rorden, 2003) and agrees with studies using functional transcranial Doppler sonography or near-infrared spectroscopy (Helton et al., 2007; Helton et al., 2010; Hitchcock et al., 2003; Shaw et al., 2012; Shaw et al., 2009).”

• cites Cabeza & Nyberg, 2000Not checked yet

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• cites Husain & Rorden, 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Helton et al., 2007; Helton et al., 2010; Hitchcock et al., 2003; Shaw et al., 2012; Shaw et al., 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Lim et al. (2010) found that response speed decreased with time on task, brain activity decreased in right midlateral PFC and bilateral posterior cingulum, no time-related increases were reported, and no significant associations between neural and performance changes over time were found.

“Using arterial spin labeling, Lim et al. (2010) measured time-related changes in brain perfusion during a 20-min detection task. Response speed decreased significantly with time on task, and significant brain activity decreases were observed in right midlateral PFC and bilateral posterior cingulum; no time-related activity increases were reported. Further, no significant associations between”

• cites Lim et al. (2010)Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Significant convergence in right midlateral PFC is corroborated by early neuroimaging studies not meeting inclusion criteria and by lesion data.

“Significant convergence in the right midlateral PFC is corroborated by VA-related effects in this region in early neuroimaging studies not meeting our inclusion criteria (Buchsbaum et al., 1990; Cohen et al., 1988; Cohen, Semple, Gross, King, & Nordahl, 1992; Lewin et al., 1996; see also Cabeza & Nyberg, 2000) as well as by lesion data (Godefroy, Lhullier-Lamy, & Rousseaux, 2002; Rueckert & Graf”

• cites Buchsbaum et al., 1990Not checked yet

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• cites Cohen et al., 1988Not checked yet

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• cites Cohen, Semple, Gross, King, & Nordahl, 1992Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The right hemisphere plays the dominant role in endogenously maintaining attentional focus, while the left hemisphere is additionally recruited by cognitive challenges such as increased selection demand.

“We conclude that the right hemisphere plays the dominant role in endogenously maintaining the attentional focus, whereas the left hemisphere is additionally recruited by cognitive challenges such as increased selection demand.”

May combine two claims.

Breckel et al. (2011) dissociated two brain networks related to short-term (20 s inter-trial interval) versus long-term (32 min time on task) VA maintenance and assumed them to reflect two distinct mechanisms.

“In contradiction to Posner’s hypothesis, Breckel et al. (2011) recently dissociated two brain networks related to short-term (i.e., average inter-trial interval: 20 s) versus long-term (i.e., time on task: 32 min) VA maintenance and assumed them to reflect two distinct mechanisms.”

• cites Breckel et al. (2011)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Within the framework proposed by Stuss and co-workers, this process is viewed as monitoring the input-induced activation level of the task schema.

“Within the framework proposed by Stuss and co-workers (Shallice et al., 2008; Stuss et al., 1995), this process is viewed as monitoring the input-induced activation level of the task schema.”

• cites Shallice et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Stuss et al., 1995Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Breckel et al.'s parametric-modulation approach decreases the probability of finding spatial overlap a priori, and hierarchical orthogonalization may have biased the analysis toward subprocesses sensitive to short-term but not long-term modulation.

“Yet, the parametric-modulation approach employed decreases the probability to find spatial overlap a priori, precluding strong inferences. In particular, hierarchical orthogonalization of the parametric regressors may have resulted in the first modulator (reflecting time on task) explaining variance potentially shared between short- and long-term VA (cf. Wood, Nuerk, Sturm, & Willmes, 2008). This,”

May combine two claims.

The right-hemisphere preponderance of this interaction provides further evidence that additional left frontal activity in response to increased selectivity demands reflects higher attentional processes on top of maintaining a stable attentional focus, which cannot compensate for right-hemisphere lesions.

“The right-hemisphere preponderance of this interaction also provides further evidence that the additional left frontal activity in response to increased selectivity demands (see above) reflects “higher” attentional processes on top of maintaining a stable attentional focus, which cannot compensate for right-hemisphere lesions.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Helton et al. (2010) suggested that VA-related right-lateralization may relate to attentional simplicity of typical VA tasks; reducing target salience to increase discrimination difficulty eliminated right-hemisphere dominance and produced a more symmetrical activity pattern.

“Helton et al. (2010) suggested that this VA-related right-lateralization may be related to the attentional simplicity of typical VA tasks: When the salience of targets was reduced to increase discrimination difficulty, the right-hemisphere dominance observed with easy-to-discriminate targets vanished and turned into a more symmetrical activity pattern (see also Demeter, Hernandez-Garcia, Sarter, &”

• cites Helton et al. (2010)Not checked yet

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• cites Demeter, Hernandez-Garcia, Sarter, & Lustig, 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Nebel et al., 2005Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Our interpretation only applies to maintaining VA for more than 10 s, not to shorter foreperiod RT paradigms.

“It should be noted, though, that our interpretation only applies to maintaining VA for more than 10 s, whereas Posner’s original suggestion appears to include even shorter maintenance periods as found in typical foreperiod RT paradigms (cf. Niemi & Näätänen, 1981).”

May combine two claims.

Rueckert and Grafman (1998) found that patients with posterior parietal lesions performed worse overall and showed a stronger time-related performance decline in a discrimination task.

“In a follow-up study (Rueckert & Grafman, 1998), patients with lesions in posterior (parietal) cortex performed worse overall and showed a stronger time-related performance decline in the discrimination task.”

• cites Rueckert & Grafman, 1998Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Phasic alerting can transiently compensate for impairments in sustaining VA and for spatial attention deficits in right-hemisphere patients.

“This view is supported by studies demonstrating that phasic alerting can transiently compensate not only for impairments in sustaining VA but also for deficits in spatial attention observed in right-hemisphere patients (Robertson, Mattingley, Rorden, & Driver, 1998; Robertson, Tegnér, Tham, Lo, & Nimmo-Smith, 1995; see also Posner, 1993).”

• cites Robertson, Mattingley, Rorden, & Driver, 1998Not checked yet

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• cites Robertson, Tegnér, Tham, Lo, & Nimmo-Smith, 1995Not checked yet

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• cites Posner, 1993Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Right-hemisphere dominance for controlling VA is corroborated by studies using lateralized stimuli and by patients with focal right-lateralized brain damage showing stronger VA impairments than left-hemisphere patients.

“The right-hemisphere dominance for controlling VA is also corroborated by studies using VA tasks with lateralized stimuli (Heilman & Van Den Abell, 1979; Warm, Richter, Sprague, Porter, & Schumsky, 1980; Whitehead, 1991) and by studies in patients with focal right-lateralized brain damage, who showed stronger VA impairments (i.e., worse average performance) than left-hemisphere patients (Coslett,”

• cites Heilman & Van Den Abell, 1979Not checked yet

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• cites Warm, Richter, Sprague, Porter, & Schumsky, 1980Not checked yet

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• cites Whitehead, 1991Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Cooperative-interaction models of hemispheric specialization assume that cognitive processes are not completely lateralized but are asymmetrically subserved by both hemispheres, with lateralization decreasing as task difficulty increases.

“These findings accord with cooperative-interaction models of hemispheric specialization in which cognitive processes are assumed not to be completely lateralized but to be (asymmetrically) subserved by both hemispheres, with lateralization decreasing with increasing task difficulty (Allen, 1983; Hoptman & Davidson, 1994).”

• cites Allen, 1983Not checked yet

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• cites Hoptman & Davidson, 1994Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Coull et al. (1998) found that RT increased over time and brain activity decreased across both tasks in right dorso- and ventrolateral PFC, right bilateral inferior parietal cortex, left anterior middle frontal gyrus, and left thalamus, with increases in right caudate nucleus and posterior cingulate cortex.

“Another PET study (Coull, Frackowiak, & Frith, 1998) examined time-related changes in brain activity during a discrimination and a detection task, lasting 18 min each. RT increased significantly over time, and brain activity decreased across both tasks in right dorso- and ventrolateral PFC, right bilateral inferior parietal cortex, left anterior middle frontal gyrus, and left thalamus. Time”

• cites Coull, Frackowiak, & Frith, 1998Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Posner and colleagues suggested that short-term VA (seconds) and long-term VA (minutes or hours) are basically equivalent.

“Posner and colleagues (Posner, 1978; Posner & Boies, 1971; see also Parasuraman et al., 1998) suggested that short-term VA (in the range of seconds) and long-term VA (in the range of minutes or even hours) are basically equivalent, arguing that the “foreperiod of a reaction time task may be considered as a miniature vigilance situation where alertness must be developed rapidly and maintained over”

• cites Posner, 1978Not checked yet

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• cites Posner & Boies, 1971Not checked yet

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• cites Parasuraman et al., 1998Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Methodological differences likely contribute to the small overlap between direct studies and the meta-analysis, and the comparison may also be affected by differences in level of analysis.

“Most likely, these factors also contribute to the small overlap with the outcome of our analysis, while this comparison may be additionally affected by differences in the level of analysis: individual studies examined the consistency of intraindividual time-related changes in brain activity across participants, whereas our meta-analytic approach examined the time-related consistency of brain”

May combine two claims.

Rueckert and Grafman (1996) found that patients with right frontal lesions, compared with left frontal patients and healthy controls, had slower overall responses, missed more targets, and showed steeper performance decline over 10 min in a discrimination task.

“A study by Rueckert and Grafman (1996) reported that patients with right frontal lesions, as compared to patients with left frontal lesions and healthy controls, not only showed slower overall responses and missed more targets in a detection as well as a discrimination task but also showed a steeper performance decline over 10 min in the discrimination task.”

• cites Rueckert and Grafman (1996)Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The aMCC has also been implicated in performance monitoring and signaling the need for attentional adjustments after committing an error.

“Apart from such proactive processing, the aMCC has also been implicated in performance monitoring and signaling the need for attentional adjustments after committing an error (see Danielmeier & Ullsperger, 2011, for review).”

• cites Danielmeier & Ullsperger, 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

When event onsets are unpredictable, the urge to act should arise more irregularly, potentially evoking more veto decisions to prevent premature responses.

“Here, the “urge to act” should arise more irregularly, potentially evoking more veto decisions to prevent premature responses.”

May combine two claims.

A study found a decline in dorsomedial PFC activity before erroneous responses, possibly reflecting a gradual release of the brake.

“Evidence for this assumption comes from a study (Eichele et al., 2008) that revealed a decline in dorsomedial PFC activity before erroneous responses, which may reflect a gradual “release of the brake,” shifting neural baseline motor activity too close to the motor action limit.”

• cites Eichele et al., 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

An arousal regulation system likely includes the anterior insula, which was also revealed by the meta-analysis.

“Such an arousal regulation system will likely include the anterior insula, an area that was also revealed by our meta-analysis.”

May combine two claims.

Dosenbach et al. observed sustained activity in frontomedial regions and anterior insula across different tasks, suggesting it reflected initial implementation and stable maintenance or recurrent reactivation of task sets.

“Converging evidence for this interpretation was provided by Dosenbach et al. (2006), who observed sustained activity in these frontomedial regions and the anterior insula across different tasks, suggesting that it reflected the initial implementation and stable maintenance (or recurrent reactivation; cf. Sridharan et al., 2008) of task sets (see also Dosenbach et al., 2007).”

• cites Dosenbach et al., 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Dosenbach et al., 2007Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Target regions for such control signals may include midlateral PFC and parietal cortex for adjusting input expectations, and subcortical arousal systems for adjusting ascending modulatory inputs.

“Target regions for such control signals may include the midlateral PFC and parietal cortex for adjusting input expectations, as well as subcortical arousal systems for adjusting ascending modulatory inputs.”

May combine two claims.

Simple detection tasks involve a single response that can be fully pre-planned and easily simulated, and they typically evoke more premature responses than discrimination tasks, whose irregular no-go trials discourage continuous motor simulation.

“Simple detection tasks only involve a single response, which can be fully pre-planned and easily simulated, and typically evoke more premature responses than discrimination tasks, whose irregularly interspersed no-go trials discourage continuous motor simulation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The stronger involvement of left IFJ in discrimination versus detection tasks is in line with difficulty-related hemispheric asymmetry reduction, but it might also reflect verbal rehearsal of the more complex S-R mapping in discrimination tasks.

“The stronger involvement of the left IFJ in discrimination versus detection tasks is in line with the difficulty-related hemispheric asymmetry reduction alluded to above; however, it might also reflect (covert or even overt) verbal rehearsal of the more complex S-R mapping in discrimination tasks (cf. Friederici, 2002).”

May combine two claims.

Right IFJ may link non-dominant responses and stimulus features that trigger them, possibly by sending control signals to inferior parietal cortex implementing stimulus-driven reorienting of attention.

“Right IFJ may thus link non-dominant responses and stimulus features that trigger them, possibly by sending control signals to inferior parietal cortex implementing a stimulus-driven (re)orienting of attention.”

May combine two claims.

Pre-error drifts toward task disengagement mediated the brake release, fitting with a co-occurring decline in precuneus activity.

“This interpretation fits with the reported co-occurring decline in precuneus activity, a region associated with task-free cognition and mind-wandering (Christoff, Gordon, Smallwood, Smith, & Schooler, 2009), suggesting that pre-error drifts toward task disengagement mediated the “brake release.””

• cites Christoff et al., 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Since conditional probability monitoring per se seems not related to PFC activity, the PFC might be more involved in converting subjective probabilities into expectations or predictions.

“Since conditional probability monitoring per se seems not related to PFC activity (Cui, Stetson, Montague, & Eagleman, 2009; Janssen & Shadlen, 2005), the PFC might be more involved in this second process: the conversion of subjective probabilities into expectations or predictions.”

May combine two claims.

Dorsomedial PFC/aMCC and anterior insula may monitor performance and energetic state and provide reactive control signals to re-engage in task-relevant processing with optimal intensity.

“Dorsomedial PFC/aMCC and anterior insula may thus monitor performance and energetic state and, if needed, provide reactive control signals to (re)engage in task-relevant processing with optimal intensity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

On a cognitive level, this might correspond to holding the representation of the S-R link active for continued top-down facilitation of the over-learnt mapping.

“On a cognitive level, this might correspond to holding the representation of the S-R link active for continued top-down facilitation of the over-learnt mapping (see also Brass, Derrfuss, Forstmann, & von Cramon, 2005).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Recurring intrusions of task-unrelated default-mode activity associated with mind-wandering challenge task-related functional networks and lie at the heart of attentional fluctuations during sustained task performance.

“In fact, it has been argued that recurring intrusions of task-unrelated (“default-mode”) brain activity associated with mind-wandering challenge the integrity of task-related functional networks and lie at the heart of attentional fluctuations during sustained task performance (Sonuga-Barke & Castellanos, 2007).”

• cites Sonuga-Barke & Castellanos, 2007Not checked yet

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The cluster was in the vicinity of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, a major source of cholinergic innervation of the cerebral cortex via projections to thalamus and basal cholinergic forebrain.

“The cluster was in the vicinity of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, which is a major source of cholinergic innervation of the cerebral cortex by way of its projections to the thalamus and the basal cholinergic forebrain (for review, see Jones, 2003; Kobayashi & Isa, 2002).”

• cites Jones, 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Kobayashi & Isa, 2002Not checked yet

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Continuous detection tasks should more often invoke veto decisions between imperative stimuli, consistent with stronger mSFG convergence in these tasks.

“Therefore, continuous detection tasks should more often invoke veto decisions in-between imperative stimuli, consistent with the observed stronger convergence in mSFG in these tasks.”

May combine two claims.

A genetic study found that noradrenergic genotype predicted lapses in VA, possibly mediated via effects on physiological efficiency of the VA-related brain network.

“Concurrent evidence was provided by a genetic study, in which noradrenergic genotype was found to predict lapses in VA, possibly mediated via effects on the physiological efficiency of the VA-related brain network (Greene, Bellgrove, Gill, & Robertson, 2009).”

• cites Greene et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The noradrenergic system has been considered essential for maintaining alertness.

“Especially the noradrenergic system has been considered essential for maintaining alertness (Posner & Petersen, 1990; Smith & Nutt, 1996).”

• cites Posner & Petersen, 1990Not checked yet

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• cites Smith & Nutt, 1996Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Recent theorizing conceptualized the right TPJ as a crucial cortical node for integrating stimulus input with task context, including comparing prepared motor programs with current requirements and updating action-related expectations.

“Recent theorizing (Jakobs et al., 2012) conceptualized the right TPJ as a crucial cortical node for the integration of stimulus input with task context (i.e., instructions and expectations), including the comparison of prepared motor programs with current requirements and/or updating of action-related expectations (cf. Eickhoff, Pomjanski, Jakobs, Zilles, & Langner, 2011).”

• cites Jakobs et al., 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Eickhoff et al., 2011Not checked yet

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Transient acetylcholine release is most likely under top-down control from PFC, which is partially driven by glutamatergic input from mediodorsal thalamus, which showed significant convergence in the data.

“Importantly, such transient acetylcholine release is most likely under top-down control from PFC, which in turn is partially driven by glutamatergic input from mediodorsal thalamus (Hasselmo & Sarter, 2011), which likewise showed significant convergence in our data.”

• cites Hasselmo & Sarter, 2011Not checked yet

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Attentional readjustments can only occur after preceding disengagement of attention, so the reorienting process should engage both IPS and TPJ.

“Since attentional readjustments can only occur after the preceding disengagement of attention, the reorienting process should engage both IPS and TPJ (Corbetta et al., 2008).”

• cites Corbetta et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: IPS activity does not reflect a steady holding of the attentional focus but rather recurrent readjustments thereof.

May combine two claims.

Tonic increases in cholinergic neurotransmission might lead to widespread enhancements of cortical arousal, acting with noradrenergic modulation from the locus coeruleus.

“Tonic increases in cholinergic neurotransmission might lead to widespread enhancements of cortical arousal (Hasselmo & Sarter, 2011; Sarter et al., 2001; Steriade, Datta, Pare, Oakson, & Curro Dossi, 1990), acting in concert with noradrenergic modulation originating in the locus coeruleus (Briand, Gritton, Howe, Young, & Sarter, 2007).”

• cites Hasselmo & Sarter, 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Sarter et al., 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Briand et al., 2007Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The IPS is associated with guiding the focus of attention in space but also appears involved in non-spatial attentional orienting, such as directing attention to stimulus modality or moments in time.

“The IPS is associated with guiding the focus of attention in space (for review, see Corbetta & Shulman, 2002; Posner & Petersen, 1990; or Raz & Buhle, 2006) but appears to be also involved in non-spatial attentional orienting (see Husain & Rorden, 2003), such as directing attention to stimulus modality (Langner, Kellermann, Boers, et al., 2012) or moments in time (Coull & Nobre, 1998).”

• cites Corbetta & Shulman, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Posner & Petersen, 1990Not checked yet

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• cites Husain & Rorden, 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ptak (2012) argued for a central role of the IPS in computing a feature- and modality-independent priority map of the environment.

“Synthesizing several lines of research, Ptak (2012) argued for a central role of this region in computing a feature- and modality-independent priority map of the environment.”

• cites Ptak, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The right TPJ contributes to optimal VA task performance by comparing expectations with incoming sensory information, providing an interface between top-down and bottom-up processing, and facilitating stimulus-driven reorienting to task-relevant inputs.

“We would thus suggest that the right TPJ contributes to optimal VA task performance by comparing expectations with incoming sensory information, providing an interface between top-down and bottom-up processing and facilitating the stimulus-driven (re)orienting to those inputs that are task-relevant (see also Corbetta et al., 2008; Downar, Crawley, Mikulis, & Davis, 2001).”

• cites Corbetta et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Downar et al., 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Top-down filter signals, possibly from midlateral PFC, convey information on task relevance of sensory inputs and enable selective stimulus-driven activation of the ventral system for reorienting to task-relevant inputs and preventing reorienting to irrelevant events.

“These and related (e.g., Shulman, Astafiev, McAvoy, d’Avossa, & Corbetta, 2007; Todd, Fougnie, & Marois, 2005) findings suggest that top-down filter signals, possibly from midlateral PFC, convey information on the task relevance of given sensory inputs and enable the selective, stimulus-driven activation of the ventral system for reorienting attention to task-relevant inputs and preventing re”

• cites Shulman et al., 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Todd et al., 2005Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

There is accumulating evidence for phasic, localized acetylcholine release that enhances signal-to-noise ratios in task-relevant cortical modules and facilitates cue detection.

“There also is, however, accumulating evidence for phasic, more specifically localized acetylcholine release, which enhances signal-to-noise ratios in task-relevant cortical modules and thus facilitates cue detection.”

May combine two claims.

PET studies reported increased hemodynamic activity in the midbrain region during VA maintenance and a time-related decline of its activity along with a performance decrement.

“Furthermore, PET studies reported increased hemodynamic activity in this midbrain region during VA maintenance (Kinomura et al., 1996) and a time-related decline of its activity along with a performance decrement (Paus et al., 1997).”

• cites Kinomura et al., 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Paus et al., 1997Not checked yet

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In an event-related fMRI study, the ventral attention network was activated during a continuous visual search task when a target was detected but deactivated between targets, whereas right IPS and frontal eye fields showed sustained activity.

“In an event-related fMRI study (Shulman et al., 2003), the ventral attention network was activated during a continuous visual search task when a target was detected but deactivated between targets, whereas the right IPS and frontal eye fields (i.e., parts of the dorsal “top-down” attention network) showed sustained activity.”

• cites Shulman et al., 2003Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.