The GTEx Consortium atlas of genetic regulatory effects across human tissues
Open accessAbstract
The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project was established to characterize genetic effects on the transcriptome across human tissues and to link these regulatory mechanisms to trait and disease associations. Here, we present analyses of the version 8 data, examining 15,201 RNA-sequencing samples from 49 tissues of 838 postmortem donors. We comprehensively characterize genetic associations for gene expression and splicing in cis and trans, showing that regulatory associations are found for almost all genes, and describe the underlying molecular mechanisms and their contribution to allelic heterogeneity and pleiotropy of complex traits. Leveraging the large diversity of tissues, we provide insights into the tissue specificity of genetic effects and show that cell type composition is a key factor in understanding gene regulatory mechanisms in human tissues.
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The CSF variant was not significant in any plasma pQTL dataset or in brain/blood eQTL analyses.
“The CSF variant was not significant in any plasma pQTL dataset (9–11) or in brain/blood eQTL analyses (3–5).”
From Low overlap of plasma and CSF protein quantitative trait loci affects protein discovery for neurological disease (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The QTL discovery section reports eQTL analyses across tissues, and the Tissue-specificity section identifies brain regions and whole blood among the GTEx tissues. Our copy does not identify the CSF variant or report that it was nonsignificant in those analyses; the plasma pQTL clause is attributed to other citations. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThis variant is in high LD (R2=0.975) with the AD index variant (rs1140239, p.Gly48Ser in DOC2A) and is a strong splicing QTL for DOC2A in brain cortex and cerebellum according to GTEx.
“This variant is in high LD (R2 = 0.975) with the AD index variant (rs1140239, p.Gly48Ser in DOC2A) and is a strong splicing QTL for DOC2A in brain cortex and cerebellum according to GTEx (5).”
From Low overlap of plasma and CSF protein quantitative trait loci affects protein discovery for neurological disease (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The QTL discovery section reports that GTEx mapped splicing QTLs across tissues, so this is an appropriate source for identifying the GTEx sQTL resource. Our copy does not identify DOC2A as a strong sQTL in brain cortex or cerebellum; searches for DOC2A and rs1140239 also did not substantiate the stated LD value. The specific variant-level claim therefore remains unsupported by this paper's text. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCrucial regulatory elements governing gene expression, such as enhancers and promoters, were consistently detected by all models across multiple heads and layers.
“Crucial regulatory elements governing gene expression, such as enhancers and promoters41–43, were consistently detected by all models across multiple heads and layers.”
From Nucleotide Transformer: building and evaluating robust foundation models for human genomics (2025) · cites this paper as [42]
100 protein-coding genes were identified as aortic valve-specific compared to 45 other tissues from GTEx.
“We identified 100 specific protein-coding genes in the aortic valve compared to 45 other tissues from the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project.”
From Aortic valve-specific genes dysregulated in calcific aortic valve stenosis as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets (2025) · cites this paper as [22]
GTEx includes too small a sample (<2%) of Hispanic individuals for adequate comparison.
“Unfortunately, GTEx includes too small of a sample (<2%) of Hispanic individuals for adequate comparison, so these were removed from the GTEx sets and a different control group was used for white Hispanics in the SPARK group [25].”
From Enrichment of a subset of Neanderthal polymorphisms in autistic probands and siblings (2024) · cites this paper as [25]
eQTL mapping identified 13 genes mapped to the EAS EduYears loci through cis-eQTL using 13 brain tissue types from GTEx v8.
“For eQTL mapping, we identified 13 genes mapped to the EAS EduYears loci through cis-eQTL using 13 brain tissue types from the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) v8 dataset23”
From Shared genetic architectures of educational attainment in East Asian and European populations (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
Using the GTEx dataset, 739 cases of pQTL-eQTL colocalisation were found in multiple tissues.
“However, while using the GTEx dataset58, we also found 739 cases of pQTL–eQTL colocalisation in multiple tissues (Fig. 3, Supplementary Table S9).”
From Genetic determinants of plasma protein levels in the Estonian population (2024) · cites this paper as [58]
GTEx found that only 43% of GWAS hits colocalized with a cis-eQTL, suggesting that substantial regulatory information is missed when focusing solely on RNA.
“The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) consortium found that only 43% of GWAS hits colocalized with a cis-eQTL (5), suggesting that substantial regulatory information is missed when focusing solely on RNA.”
From Low overlap of plasma and CSF protein quantitative trait loci affects protein discovery for neurological disease (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
Analyses of transcript levels from blood and brain among other tissues have generated eQTLs, identifying potentially causal genes for various diseases.
“Analyses of transcript levels from blood and brain among other tissues have generated expression QTLs (eQTLs) (3–5), identifying potentially causal genes for various diseases.”
From Low overlap of plasma and CSF protein quantitative trait loci affects protein discovery for neurological disease (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
Blood eQTLs show low correlation of effects with other bodily contexts, suggesting that blood is an outlier compared with other tissues.
“Blood eQTLs show low correlation of effects with other bodily contexts, suggesting that blood is an outlier compared with other tissues (5).”
From Low overlap of plasma and CSF protein quantitative trait loci affects protein discovery for neurological disease (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
It is probable that the models, without any supervision, have learned to distinguish relevant regulatory genomic features associated with gene expression and methylation variation.
“it is probable that the models, without any supervision, have learned to distinguish relevant regulatory genomic features associated with gene expression and methylation variation.”
From Nucleotide Transformer: building and evaluating robust foundation models for human genomics (2025) · cites this paper as [42]
The Fine-mapping and Discussion sections discuss regulatory variants associated with gene expression, but neither reports that unsupervised models learned to distinguish genomic features. Searches for unsupervised learning and methylation variation found no passage addressing that claim; the available passages have no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLiver expression of SERPINA12 was higher in rs77060950-T carriers (P = 2.6 × 10 -8).
“Liver expression of SERPINA12 was also higher in rs77060950-T carriers (P = 2.6 × 10 -8 ) 31”
From Plasma proteomic associations with genetics and health in the UK Biobank (2023) · cites this paper as [31]
The QTL discovery section describes associations between genetic variants and gene expression across tissues, but does not report this specific association. Searches for SERPINA12, rs77060950, and the stated P value found no passage establishing higher liver expression in T carriers; page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredrs9595404 was associated with lower CPB2 abundance in CSF and increased CPB2-AS1 expression in the brain but not with plasma CPB2 (P=0.41).
“For example, rs9595404 was associated with lower carboxypeptidase B2 (CPB2) abundance in CSF and increased CPB2-AS1 expression in the brain (5) but not with plasma CPB2 (P = 0.41; fig. S3A).”
From Low overlap of plasma and CSF protein quantitative trait loci affects protein discovery for neurological disease (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The citation is attached to the claim that rs9595404 is associated with increased CPB2-AS1 expression in the brain; the plasma result is attributed to the citing paper’s fig. S3A. The atlas discusses brain-tissue genetic effects in “Tissue-specificity of genetic regulatory effects” (page unavailable), but searches for rs9595404 and CPB2-AS1 found no passage addressing that specific association. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFor CD72, the CSF pQTL is a strong eQTL for CD72 RNA levels in the cerebellum, with the G allele increasing both RNA and CSF protein levels.
“For B cell differentiation antigen CD72 (CD72), the CSF pQTL is a strong eQTL for CD72 RNA levels in the cerebellum, with the G allele increasing both RNA and CSF protein levels (5).”
From Low overlap of plasma and CSF protein quantitative trait loci affects protein discovery for neurological disease (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The QTL discovery and Fine-mapping sections discuss eQTLs generally, but the available passages do not report a CD72 eQTL in the cerebellum or an allele’s effect on CD72 RNA and CSF protein. Searches for CD72, cerebellum, the G allele, and CSF pQTLs found no passage addressing that specific result. (LLM, conf=0.73)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThis variant is a strong splicing QTL for TMEM25 in multiple brain regions.
“This variant is a strong splicing QTL for TMEM25 in multiple brain regions (5).”
From Low overlap of plasma and CSF protein quantitative trait loci affects protein discovery for neurological disease (2026) · cites this paper as [5]
The QTL discovery and Tissue-specificity of genetic regulatory effects sections report splicing QTLs and their sharing across tissues, but do not identify a TMEM25-associated variant or establish its strength in multiple brain regions. Searches for TMEM25 and for the claimed brain-region sQTL found no passage addressing that specific association; the supplied passages have no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe sample size of this study is similar to or larger than GTEx for brain-relevant tissues, and eQTL studies from GTEx do not see the same amount of coding-variant enrichment.
“However, the sample size of our study is similar to or larger than GTEx for brain-relevant tissues, and eQTL studies from GTEx do not see the same amount of coding-variant enrichment5.”
From Genomic atlas of the proteome from brain, CSF and plasma prioritizes proteins implicated in neurological disorders (2021) · cites this paper as [5]
Target expression data was primarily extracted from GTEx, the Human Protein Atlas, UniProt and TISSUES.
“Target expression data was primarily extracted from GTEx (12), the Human Protein Atlas (HPA) (13), UniProt and TISSUES (14).”
From TCRD and pharos 2021: mining the human proteome for disease biology (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
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Genome-wide associations for birth weight and correlations with adult disease
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Identification of context-dependent expression quantitative trait loci in whole blood
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Large multiallelic copy number variations in humans
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Self-citationTools and best practices for data processing in allelic expression analysis.
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Self-citationAbundant associations with gene expression complicate GWAS follow-up
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Self-citationIntegrating predicted transcriptome from multiple tissues improves association detection
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Self-citationThe Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project
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Identification of Novel Genetic Markers of Breast Cancer Survival
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Self-citationA Genetic Investigation of Sex Bias in the Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
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Efficient Integrative Multi-SNP Association Analysis via Deterministic Approximation of Posteriors
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Self-citationFemale Breast Cancer Incidence Among Asian and Western Populations: More Similar Than Expected
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Self-citationChromatin three-dimensional interactions mediate genetic effects on gene expression
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Self-citationTranscriptomic signatures across human tissues identify functional rare genetic variation
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Self-citationRare variant phasing and haplotypic expression from RNA sequencing with phASER
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Conditional eQTL analysis reveals allelic heterogeneity of gene expression
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A vast resource of allelic expression data spanning human tissues
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Self-citationImpact of admixture and ancestry on eQTL analysis and GWAS colocalization in GTEx
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Self-citationGenetic regulatory variation in populations informs transcriptome analysis in rare disease
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Self-citationCBX8 Exhibits Oncogenic Activity via AKT/β-Catenin Activation in Hepatocellular Carcinoma
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Self-citationCbx8 Acts Non-canonically with Wdr5 to Promote Mammary Tumorigenesis
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Self-citationFunctional Phe31Ile polymorphism in Aurora A and risk of breast carcinoma
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CBX8 exhibits oncogenic properties and serves as a prognostic factor in hepatocellular carcinoma
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Reconstructed Skin Models Revealed Unexpected Differences in Epidermal African and Caucasian Skin
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New insights into the genetic etiology of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias
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Self-citationGenome-wide association studies
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Self-citationSingle-cell chromatin state analysis with Signac
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Plasma proteomic associations with genetics and health in the UK Biobank
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Self-citationEffective gene expression prediction from sequence by integrating long-range interactions
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Self-citationThe power of genetic diversity in genome-wide association studies of lipids
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Talquetamab, a T-Cell–Redirecting GPRC5D Bispecific Antibody for Multiple Myeloma
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Single-cell eQTL mapping identifies cell type–specific genetic control of autoimmune disease
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Self-citationGenetic drivers of progression in Alzheimer’s disease are distinct from disease risk
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Connecting proteomics and genomics to identify causal biomarkers specific for aortic valve stenosis
Zamani, P., Houessou, U., Manikpurage, H. D., Dahmene, M., Li, Z., Gaudreault, N., Clavel, M.-A., Pibarot, P., Mathieu, P., Arsenault, B. J., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.11.27.25339923
“To determine whether the variants associated with gene expression and those associated with circulating protein levels were the same, we performed Bayesian colocalization analyses integrating aortic valve tissue eQTLs with pQTLs from the UKB-PPP 13 and aorta tissue eQTLs from GTEx (v8) 23 .”
Effects of introgressed Neanderthal alleles on present-day brain morphology
Zeloni, R., Amaolo, A., Morez Jacobs, A., Zapparoli, E., Akl, Y., Shafie, M., Huerta-Sanchez, E., Pizzagalli, F., Provero, P., Pagani, L., et al. (2026) · bioRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.04.14.718380
“On chromosome 4, a large credible set composed at 93% by NSVs with an extensive open chromatin overlap and a large potential to alter chromatin accessibility in cortical neurons acts as eQTLs and sQTLs for PRDM5 (GTEx).”
TFXcan reveals transcription factor programs driving GWAS loci
Adeluwa, T., Salazar-Magaña, S., Sumner, S., Gona, S., Nyasimi, F., Carbonetto, P., Baca, S. C., Freedman, M., Gusev, A., Liu, B., et al. (2026) · Cell Genomics · doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2026.101398
Self-citation
- Authors
- The GTEx Consortium, Aguet, F., Anand, S., Ardlie, K. G., Gabriel, S., Getz, G. A., Graubert, A., Hadley, K., Handsaker, R. E., Huang, K. H., Kashin, S., Li, X., MacArthur, D. G., Meier, S. R., Nedzel, J. L., Nguyen, D. T., Segrè, A. V., Todres, E., Balliu, B., Barbeira, A. N., Battle, A., Bonazzola, R., Brown, A., Brown, C. D., Castel, S. E., Conrad, D. F., Cotter, D. J., Cox, N., Das, S., de Goede, O. M., Dermitzakis, E. T., Einson, J., Engelhardt, B. E., Eskin, E., Eulalio, T. Y., Ferraro, N. M., Flynn, E. D., Fresard, L., Gamazon, E. R., Garrido-Martín, D., Gay, N. R., Gloudemans, M. J., Guigó, R., Hame, A. R., He, Y., Hoffman, P. J., Hormozdiari, F., Hou, L., Im, H. K., Jo, B., Kasela, S., Kellis, M., Kim-Hellmuth, S., Kwong, A., Lappalainen, T., Li, X., Liang, Y., Mangul, S., Mohammadi, P., Montgomery, S. B., Muñoz-Aguirre, M., Nachun, D. C., Nobel, A. B., Oliva, M., Park, Y., Park, Y., Parsana, P., Rao, A. S., Reverter, F., Rouhana, J. M., Sabatti, C., Saha, A., Stephens, M., Stranger, B. E., Strober, B. J., Teran, N. A., Viñuela, A., Wang, G., Wen, X., Wright, F., Wucher, V., Zou, Y., Ferreira, P. G., Li, G., Melé, M., Yeger-Lotem, E., Barcus, M. E., Bradbury, D., Krubit, T., McLean, J. A., Qi, L., Robinson, K., Roche, N. V., Smith, A. M., Sobin, L., Tabor, D. E., Undale, A., Bridge, J., Brigham, L. E., Foster, B. A., Gillard, B. M., Hasz, R., Hunter, M., Johns, C., Johnson, M., Karasik, E., Kopen, G., Leinweber, W. F., McDonald, A., Moser, M. T., Myer, K., Ramsey, K. D., Roe, B., Shad, S., Thomas, J. A., Walters, G., Washington, M., Wheeler, J., Jewell, S. D., Rohrer, D. C., Valley, D. R., Davis, D. A., Mash, D. C., Branton, P. A., Barker, L. K., Gardiner, H. M., Mosavel, M., Siminoff, L. A., Flicek, P., Haeussler, M., Juettemann, T., Kent, W. J., Lee, C. M., Powell, C. C., Rosenbloom, K. R., Ruffier, M., Sheppard, D., Taylor, K., Trevanion, S. J., Zerbino, D. R., Abell, N. S., Akey, J., Chen, L., Demanelis, K., Doherty, J. A., Feinberg, A. P., Hansen, K. D., Hickey, P. F., Jasmine, F., Jiang, L., Kaul, R., Kibriya, M. G., Li, J. B., Li, Q., Lin, S., Linder, S. E., Pierce, B. L., Rizzardi, L. F., Skol, A. D., Smith, K. S., Snyder, M., Stamatoyannopoulos, J., Tang, H., Wang, M., Carithers, L. J., Guan, P., Koester, S. E., Little, A. R., Moore, H. M., Nierras, C. R., Rao, A. K., Vaught, J. B., & Volpi, S.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts General Hospital (US)
- University of Chicago (US)
- Northwestern University (US)
- King's College London (GB)
- ORCID
- Aguet, François
- Anand, Shankara
- Ardlie, Kristin G.
- Gabriel, Stacey
- Getz, Gad A.
- Graubert, Aaron
- Hadley, Kane
- Handsaker, Robert E.
- Huang, Katherine H.
- Kashin, Seva
- Li, Xiao
- MacArthur, Daniel G.
- Meier, Samuel R.
- Nedzel, Jared L.
- Nguyen, Duyen T.
- Segrè, Ayellet V.
- Todres, Ellen
- Balliu, Brunilda
- Barbeira, Alvaro N.
- Battle, Alexis
- Bonazzola, Rodrigo
- Brown, Andrew
- Brown, Christopher D.
- Castel, Stephane E.
- Conrad, Donald F.
- Cotter, Daniel J.
- Cox, Nancy
- Das, Sayantan
- Dermitzakis, Emmanouil T.
- Einson, Jonah
- Engelhardt, Barbara E.
- Eskin, Eleazar
- Eulalio, Tiffany Y.
- Ferraro, Nicole M.
- Flynn, Elise D.
- Gamazon, Eric R.
- Garrido-Martín, Diego
- Gay, Nicole R.
- Gloudemans, Michael J.
- Guigó, Roderic
- He, Yuan
- Hoffman, Paul J.
- Hormozdiari, Farhad
- Im, Hae Kyung
- Jo, Brian
- Kasela, Silva
- Kellis, Manolis
- Kim-Hellmuth, Sarah
- Kwong, Alan
- Lappalainen, Tuuli
- Li, Xin
- Liang, Yanyu
- Mangul, Serghei
- Mohammadi, Pejman
- Montgomery, Stephen B.
- Muñoz-Aguirre, Manuel
- Nachun, Daniel C.
- Nobel, Andrew B.
- Oliva, Meritxell
- Park, YoSon
- Park, Yongjin
- Parsana, Princy
- Rouhana, John M.
- Sabatti, Chiara
- Saha, Ashis
- Stephens, Matthew
- Stranger, Barbara E.
- Strober, Benjamin J.
- Teran, Nicole A.
- Viñuela, Ana
- Wang, Gao
- Wen, Xiaoquan
- Wright, Fred
- Wucher, Valentin
- Zou, Yuxin
- Ferreira, Pedro G.
- Li, Gen
- Melé, Marta
- Smith, Anna M.
- Tabor, David E.
- Foster, Barbara A.
- Gillard, Bryan M.
- Hasz, Richard
- Johns, Christopher
- Johnson, Mark
- Moser, Michael T.
- Jewell, Scott D.
- Rohrer, Daniel C.
- Davis, David A.
- Mash, Deborah C.
- Branton, Philip A.
- Gardiner, Heather M.
- Mosavel, Maghboeba
- Siminoff, Laura A.
- Flicek, Paul
- Haeussler, Maximilian
- Juettemann, Thomas
- Lee, Christopher M.
- Rosenbloom, Kate R.
- Ruffier, Magali
- Sheppard, Dan
- Taylor, Kieron
- Trevanion, Stephen J.
- Zerbino, Daniel R.
- Abell, Nathan S.
- Akey, Joshua
- Chen, Lin
- Demanelis, Kathryn
- Doherty, Jennifer A.
- Feinberg, Andrew P.
- Hansen, Kasper D.
- Hickey, Peter F.
- Jasmine, Farzana
- Jiang, Lihua
- Kaul, Rajinder
- Kibriya, Muhammad G.
- Li, Jin Billy
- Li, Qin
- Lin, Shin
- Pierce, Brandon L.
- Rizzardi, Lindsay F.
- Skol, Andrew D.
- Smith, Kevin S.
- Snyder, Michael
- Stamatoyannopoulos, John
- Tang, Hua
- Wang, Meng
- Little, A. Roger
- Moore, Helen M.
- Volpi, Simona
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2020-09-11
- Volume
- 369
- Issue
- 6509
- Pages
- 1318-1330
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC7737656
- OpenAlex
- W3133859624
- Cited by
- 5,547
- References
- 133
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1228 · 2025: 1173 · 2024: 1054 · 2023: 762 · 2022: 734 · 2021: 485 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 9 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 320.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Repositori digital de la UPF (Universitat Pompeu Fabra) (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona (Universitat de Barcelona) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Discovery Research Portal (University of Dundee) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UPCommons institutional repository (Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health
- National Human Genome Research Institute (5U41HG002371-19)
- NIH Office of the Director (R01 MH107666, P30 DK020595, HG002585)
- National Cancer Institute
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory
- NHGRI (R01 HG006855)
- Leidos Biomedical Research (BOA No. 10XS1035)
- NIH/NIMH (R01MH101782)
- Swiss National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA Research and Splicing
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Chromatin Dynamics
- Keywords
- gene expression regulation, cis-eQTL, trans-eQTL, splicing regulation, allelic heterogeneity, pleiotropy, complex traits, tissue specificity, cell type composition, transcriptome, GTEx
- MeSH terms
- Disease, Female, Gene Expression Regulation, Humans, Male, Organ Specificity, Sequence Analysis, RNA, Quantitative Trait Loci, Genome-Wide Association Study, Datasets as Topic
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