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Cited by 321Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesPsychological Treatments and Assessments

Cognitive Bias Modification: Past Perspectives, Current Findings, and Future Applications

Open access
Hertel, Paula T., Mathews, Andrew·2011·Perspectives on Psychological Science
DOI 10.1177/1745691611421205
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Abstract

Research conducted within the general paradigm of cognitive bias modification (CBM) reveals that emotional biases in attention, interpretation, and memory are not merely associated with emotional disorders but contribute to them. After briefly describing research on both emotional biases and their modification, the authors examine similarities between CBM paradigms and older experimental paradigms used in research on learning and memory. The techniques and goals of CBM research are compared with other approaches to understanding cognition–emotion interactions. From a functional perspective, the CBM tradition reminds us to use experimental tools to evaluate assumptions about clinical phenomena and, more generally, about causal relationships between cognitive processing and emotion.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Cognitive bias modification (CBM) research shows that emotional biases in attention, interpretation, and memory can be experimentally modified, and that these changes can alter later emotional reactivity. The review links CBM to older learning/memory paradigms and argues that CBM is a general experimental tool for testing causal cognition-emotion assumptions.

Key findings

  • Attention training can shift attentional bias and emotional vulnerability: participants trained to attend threat reported more distress after insoluble problems than those trained to avoid threat, while repeated benign attention training reduced rated work stress and lowered cortisol in telemarketers.
  • Interpretation training can change how novel ambiguity is resolved and can affect emotion: negative training increased anxiety and negative interpretations, whereas positive training reduced worry, social anxiety, and depressed mood; effects persisted to the next day and influenced distress while viewing accident videos.
  • Memory modification is less developed: only a few experiments have established biased memories, and five memory-modification experiments failed to find or did not assess emotional consequences; one study found benign training proactively interfered with controlled recollection of negative resolutions.
  • CBM is framed as related to transfer-appropriate processing, desirable difficulties, and associative learning; far-transfer effects to emotional challenges are central but are not always obtained.

Methods

  • Design: narrative review of experiments within the CBM tradition, comparing CBM paradigms with older learning and memory paradigms such as counterconditioning and transfer-appropriate processing.
  • Data or sample: reviewed experiments were conducted with nonclinical volunteers unless participants were selected for special characteristics such as emotional vulnerability or clinical condition.
  • Main analysis: qualitative synthesis of attention, interpretation, and memory modification studies, plus discussion of mechanisms, automaticity versus cognitive control, mood-cognition research, appraisal theory, and cognitive behavior therapy.

Limitations

  • The paper states that only a few experiments have been performed to establish biased memories, that five memory-modification experiments failed to find or did not assess emotional consequences, that far transfer is not always obtained, and that it is too soon to know the extent and manner of controlled versus automatic processes in CBM.
  • The paper also notes that self-reports about cognitive procedures are usually not reliable and that there has been little neuroimaging research on cognitive control in bias modification.
  • Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search strategy or quantitative synthesis.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1745691611421205

Cites

126 of 126 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 47 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Relative to nonanxious controls, anxious individuals are more likely to remember and report ambiguous events in terms of their more threatening meanings.

    “Relative to nonanxious control groups, anxious individuals are more likely to remember and report ambiguous events in terms of their more threatening meanings.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Eysenck, Mogg, May, Richards, & Mathews, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hirsch & Mathews, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Eight sessions of positive interpretation training led to greater decreases on a questionnaire assessing social anxiety than in a control group.

    “Eight sessions of positive training led to greater decreases on a questionnaire assessing social anxiety than in the control group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beard & Amir, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Evidence for memory biases in anxiety is found when other cognitive characteristics of anxiety are taken into account, such as imagery-based distortions in recall of social scenarios.

    “However, as is the case with depression, evidence for memory biases in anxiety is found when other cognitive characteristics of anxiety are taken into account (such as imagery-based distortions in the recall of social scenarios; Hertel, Brozovich, Joormann, & Gotlib, 2008; see Hirsch, Clark, & Mathews, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hertel, Brozovich, Joormann, & Gotlib, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hirsch, Clark, & Mathews, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Only imagery-based positive interpretation training was effective in protecting against negative mood.

    “In one version, participants were trained to make positive interpretations with or without self-imagery, and only the imagery-based training was effective in protecting against negative mood (Holmes, Lang, & Shah, 2009; see also Blackwell & Holmes, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Holmes, Lang, & Shah, 2009

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    • cites Blackwell & Holmes, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Attention training has beneficial effects for participants suffering from clinical anxiety states, such as Generalized Anxiety Disorder and social phobia.

    “Attention training has also been shown to have beneficial effects for participants suffering from clinical anxiety states, such as Generalized Anxiety Disorder and social phobia (for a meta-analysis, see Hakamata et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hakamata et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. 19
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 2

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People prone to anxiety or depression are more likely than others to interpret ambiguity negatively, attend more to emotionally negative cues, and selectively recall negative information.

    “those who are prone to anxiety or depression are more likely than others to interpret ambiguity in a negative way, attend more to emotionally negative cues, and selectively recall negative information (Mathews & MacLeod, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mathews & MacLeod, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overall, emotional stimuli tend to capture attention more than neutral ones, but in healthy individuals this applies as much to positive as negative cues, whereas in those prone to anxiety or depression, attention is more likely captured by negative cues, particularly when related to individual emotional concerns.

    “Overall, emotional stimuli tend to capture attention more than do neutral ones, but whereas this tendency in healthy individuals applies as much (and sometimes more) to positive as to negative cues, in those prone to anxiety or depression, attention is more likely to be captured by negative cues, particularly when such cues are related to individual emotional concerns.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Depression is associated with negative interpretations of emotional ambiguity, although evidence is less consistent.

    “There is also evidence (albeit somewhat less consistent) that depression is associated with negative interpretations of emotional ambiguity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Lawson & MacLeod, 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lawson, MacLeod, & Hammond, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mogg, Bradbury, & Bradley, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Participants allocated to practicing negative resolutions reported feeling more anxious and made more negative interpretations of novel test descriptions compared with the positive group.

    “Compared with the positive group, participants allocated to practicing negative resolutions reported feeling more anxious and made more negative interpretations of the novel test descriptions (Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Repeated sessions of training to search for a smiling face in a matrix of rejecting faces reduced rated work stress in telemarketers and led to lower cortisol levels.

    “In contrast to a control condition in which participants searched for flowers, repeated sessions of training not only reduced rated work stress in telemarketers but also led to lower cortisol levels, an index of emotional distress.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dandeneau, Baldwin, Baccus, Sakellaropoulo, and Pruessner (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nonanxious controls are more likely to endorse nonthreatening interpretations, whereas currently anxious individuals are equally likely to endorse threatening and nonthreatening interpretations.

    “The key finding was that nonanxious controls were more likely to endorse nonthreatening interpretations, whereas currently anxious individuals were equally likely to endorse threatening and nonthreatening interpretations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eysenck et al., 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nondepressed individuals are more likely to remember positive self-descriptive words and happy faces, whereas those prone to depression are relatively more likely to remember negative self-descriptive words and sad faces.

    “Whereas nondepressed individuals are more likely to remember positive self-descriptive words and happy faces, those prone to depression are relatively more likely to remember negative selfdescriptive words and sad faces.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mathews & MacLeod, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Matt et al., 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    CBM experiments have demonstrated that cognitive biases can be modified and that the induced changes influence subsequent emotional reactivity.

    “CBM experiments have demonstrated that cognitive biases can indeed be modified and that the induced changes influence subsequent emotional reactivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Practice in interpreting emotional ambiguity in a more positive (or negative) manner influences how novel ambiguous exemplars are interpreted and can also reduce (or increase) negative emotional states or the distress caused by stressful events.

    “In summary, as with attention, practice in interpreting emotional ambiguity in a more positive (or negative) manner influences how novel ambiguous exemplars are interpreted and can also reduce (or increase) negative emotional states or the distress caused by stressful events.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Anxious individuals are typically faster to respond to targets appearing in locations just vacated by threatening rather than neutral cues, whereas nonanxious control participants show the reverse pattern.

    “anxious individuals are typically faster to respond to targets appearing in locations just vacated by threatening rather than neutral cues, whereas nonanxious control participants show the reverse pattern (MacLeod, Mathews, & Tata, 1986; meta-analysis by Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites MacLeod, Mathews, & Tata, 1986

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bar-Haim et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Compared with healthy people, those prone to anxiety and depression are more likely to attend to negative or threatening cues, resolve ambiguity in negative ways, and selectively remember negative events.

    “Compared with the benign or positive processing style that characterizes healthy people, those prone to anxiety and depression are more likely to attend to negative or threatening cues, resolve ambiguity in negative ways, and selectively remember negative events.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    CBM and CBT both involve direct attempts to modify cognitive processes believed to underlie emotional distress.

    “Both involve direct attempts to modify cognitive processes believed to underlie emotional distress, and both employ systematic exposure to the events that trigger distress.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In CBT, exposure to evocative events is designed to reduce emotional reactions via extinction or to collect evidence against false beliefs by showing that anticipated catastrophic consequences do not occur.
    • Rests on an assumption: CBT also targets inappropriate cognitive content, but here the usual means of change is to directly challenge the reportable thoughts believed to maintain distress.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Cognitive biases are malleable and modifying them can have consequences for memory and emotional vulnerability.

    “The evidence discussed so far strongly suggests that cognitive biases are malleable and that modifying them can have consequences for memory and emotional vulnerability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Research paradigms gathered under the rubric of cognitive bias modification are tools to test assumptions about interactions between cognitive and emotional processes.

    “Beyond strictly clinical concerns, research paradigms gathered together under the rubric of cognitive bias modification are nothing more and nothing less than tools to test assumptions, often initially unspecified, about interactions between cognitive and emotional processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Practice in the positive resolution of ambiguity can transfer to new ambiguous situations and lead to subsequent changes in affective reactivity to potentially emotional novel events.

    “As with modification of attention to threat, practice in the positive resolution of ambiguity can transfer to new ambiguous situations and lead to subsequent changes in affective reactivity to potentially emotional novel events.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    CBM involves repeated trials that target processes typically not available to conscious report.

    “In contrast, CBM involves repeated trials that target processes typically not available to conscious report, and as we have argued earlier, participants are not necessarily aware of the resultant changes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    CBM and CBT both employ systematic exposure to the events that trigger distress.

    “Both involve direct attempts to modify cognitive processes believed to underlie emotional distress, and both employ systematic exposure to the events that trigger distress.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In CBT, exposure to evocative events is designed to reduce emotional reactions via extinction or to collect evidence against false beliefs by showing that anticipated catastrophic consequences do not occur.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lapse and relapse tend to occur if features of the context revert to earlier conditions (renewal effect) or if the original significant outcomes occur noncontingently (reinstatement).

    “Lapse and relapse, in which the original contingencies dominate to guide behavior, tend to occur if features of the context revert to earlier conditions (the renewal effect) or if the original significant outcomes occur noncontingently (reinstatement).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bouton, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The modification of cognitive biases relies on tried and true principles of experimental psychology.

    “Unsurprisingly, the modification of cognitive biases relies on tried and true principles of experimental psychology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Only a few experiments have been performed to establish biased memories, and these experiments mainly have modified interpretation biases in ways that produce distorted memories.

    “Compared with other types of CBM, however, only a few experiments have been performed to establish biased memories, and these experiments mainly have modified interpretation biases in ways that produce distorted memories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Depressed participants achieved forgetting of negative associates to benign cues but only when thought substitutes had been used to aid suppression practice, unlike controls who could forget without these aids.

    “Depressed participants achieved such forgetting but only when thought substitutes had been used to aid suppression practice (unlike controls who could forget without these aids).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Joormann, Hertel, LeMoult, & Gotlib, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

21 of 21

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Cognitive characteristics play a part in creating emotional resilience or emotional vulnerability.

    “A fundamental assumption underlying cognitive therapy for emotional disorders and cognitive appraisal theories of emotion is that cognitive characteristics play a part in creating emotional resilience or emotional vulnerability.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The same fundamental principles underlying CBM are likely to apply across a wide range of specific applications.

    “Until we learn otherwise, we assume that the same fundamental principles are likely to apply across a wide range of specific applications.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The same cognitive procedures are involved in stressful transfer tasks as in training, despite differing contexts.

    “the same cognitive procedures are assumed to be involved but the contexts differ substantially from those presented during training.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Students forget learned material after tests, and anxious or depressed individuals revert to well-practiced biases outside therapy.

    “Unfortunately, students often forget what they have learned in college classes once the test has been taken, and anxious or depressed individuals easily revert to well-practiced biases outside the therapeutic context.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Self-reports about cognitive procedures are usually not reliable.

    “self-reports about cognitive procedures are usually not reliable.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The lateral frontal cortex is implicated in intentional control.

    “Because the lateral frontal cortex is implicated in intentional control, this finding might argue against exclusively automatic effects.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Appraisal theories have generally been tested by showing that the self-reported relevance of an event is a good predictor of emotional response, and not by modifying processes assumed to contribute to appraisal but likely inaccessible to conscious report.

    “Appraisal theories have generally been tested by showing that the self-reported relevance of an event is a good predictor of emotional response and not by modifying processes assumed to contribute to appraisal but likely inaccessible to conscious report, as in CBM experiments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In CBT, exposure to evocative events is designed to reduce emotional reactions via extinction or to collect evidence against false beliefs by showing that anticipated catastrophic consequences do not occur.

    “In CBT, exposure to evocative events is designed to reduce emotional reactions via extinction (sometimes referred to as habituation) or to collect evidence against false beliefs by showing that anticipated catastrophic consequences do not occur.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In CBM, training and control conditions sometimes involve a similar extent of exposure to potential threat cues.

    “In CBM, by contrast, extinction due to exposure is not thought to be the agent of change; in fact, training and control conditions sometimes involve a similar extent of exposure to potential threat cues.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    CBT also targets inappropriate cognitive content, but here the usual means of change is to directly challenge the reportable thoughts believed to maintain distress.

    “To be sure, CBT also targets inappropriate cognitive content, but here the usual means of change is to directly challenge the reportable thoughts believed to maintain distress.”
10 of 10

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • It is unclear whether effects of ABM training transfer to other AB measures or related cognitive functions.

    “In addition, ABM threat-avoidance training studies often use similar tasks to both modify AB and assess AB change (e.g., probe-based spatial attention tasks are used in both ABM threatavoidance training and AB assessment), and it is therefore unclear whether effects of training transfer to other AB measures or related cognitive functions [7,82].”

    From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [82]

  • ABM threat-avoidance training studies often use similar tasks to both modify AB and assess AB change.

    “In addition, ABM threat-avoidance training studies often use similar tasks to both modify AB and assess AB change (e.g., probe-based spatial attention tasks are used in both ABM threatavoidance training and AB assessment), and it is therefore unclear whether effects of training transfer to other AB measures or related cognitive functions [7,82].”

    From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [82]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. Anderson M.C., True and false recovered memories: Toward a reconciliation of the debate. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 58
  2. 10.1016/j.jbttep.2010.12.006 · DOI
  3. McDaniel M.A., 2010, Cognitive psychology of memory, 819
  4. Peters K.D., Journal of Abnormal Psychology
  5. Smith C.A., 1992, Emotion and social behaviour, 32

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Hertel, P. T., & Mathews, A.
Affiliations
  • Trinity University (US)
  • University of California, Davis (US)
Corresponding author
Hertel, Paula T.
ORCID
Hertel, Paula T.
Venue
Perspectives on Psychological Science
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2011-10-14
Volume
6
Issue
6
Pages
521-536
ISSN
  • 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
  • 1745-6924
DOI
10.1177/1745691611421205
OpenAlex
W1995460541
Cited by
321
References
120
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 15
FWCI
29.26
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Digital Commons - Trinity University (Trinity University) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
Keywords
cognitive bias modification, emotional bias, attentional bias, interpretation bias, memory bias, emotion and cognition, emotional disorders

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