Human Brain/Cloud Interface

In the paper

“Such human B/CI systems may dramatically alter human/machine communications, carrying the promise of significant human cognitive enhancement”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Kurzweil, 2014
• Supported

  Section 2, “Future applications of BCIs,” describes BCIs as a possible platform for cognitive enhancement and human-machine collaboration, with the potential to connect individual brains to communications networks. The paper explicitly calls these applications speculative, consistent with the claim’s hedged wording. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Swan, 2016 source

In the paper

“Medical neuralnanorobots are expected to have the capacity for real-time, non-destructive monitoring of single-neuron and single-synapse neuroelectric activity, local neuropeptide traffic, and other relevant functional data, while also allowing the acquisition of fundamental structural information from neuron surfaces, to enhance the connectome map of a living human brain”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Sporns et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Lu et al., 2009
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Anderson et al., 2011

In the paper

“Proper synapse formation during childhood provides a substrate for cognition, whereas improper formation or functionality leads to neuro-developmental disorders including mental retardation and autism”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rollenhagen and Lübke, 2006 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mcallister, 2007 source
• Partly supported

  The Introduction (pp. 10434–10444) links hippocampal mossy fiber synapses to processing, storage, and recall of spatial information, supporting a general connection between synapses and cognition. It does not establish that synapse formation during childhood provides that substrate or that improper formation or function leads to mental retardation or autism; searches for those developmental and disorder terms found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.79)

  cites Rollenhagen et al., 2007 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The average number of glial cells in the human brain is estimated to be 84.61 ± 9.83 × 109 (Herculano-Houzel, 2009), with the population of glial cells in the neocortex estimated at from 18.2 to 38.6 × 109”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  In “The cellular composition of the human brain” (page not provided), the paper reports about 85 billion non-neuronal cells in the adult male human brain, close to the cited estimate. It does not give the stated ±9.83 billion uncertainty there, and non-neuronal cells are not identified specifically as glial cells. The citation is attached to the whole-brain estimate, not the subsequent neocortex range. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Herculano-Houzel, 2009 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Results (page unavailable) estimate 18.2 × 10^9 neocortical glial cells in the control group, supporting the lower figure. They do not give 38.6 × 10^9 or an 18.2–38.6 × 10^9 range; the reported range for controls is 15.0–21.8 × 10^9. The whole-brain estimate is explicitly attributed to Herculano-Houzel (2009) in the citing sentence, not to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Karlsen and Pakkenberg, 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Magnetoelectric nanoparticles have already been utilized to control intrinsic fields deep within the mouse brain and have permitted the coupling of external magnetic fields to neuronal electric fields.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Introduction describes how ME nanoparticles could couple externally controlled magnetic fields to local electric activity deep in the brain. But the Abstract and Conclusions identify this as a computational study modeling brain stimulation in a patient with Parkinson’s disease, not an experimental use in mouse brains. The claim overstates the work as an accomplished application and assigns it a mouse setting the paper does not report. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Yue et al., 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Supported

  The Abstract reports an in vivo mouse study in which magnetoelectric nanoparticles enabled an external magnetic field to modulate intrinsic electric waveforms. The Conclusion says the study opens a pathway to controlling intrinsic fields deep in the brain, and the executive summary describes coupling intrinsic electric-field processes with external magnetic fields. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Guduru et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“This computational model may be questionable, however, as computers are based on von Neumann architecture, whereas brain circuits are not; and brains operate in a massively parallel manner, whereas computers do not”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Architecture section (page not provided) explicitly identifies both differences: computers use Von Neumann architecture while brain circuits do not, and brains are massively parallel while computers generally are not. This supports the stated reason for questioning a direct computational comparison. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites Nagarajan and Stevens, 2008 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Whitworth and Ryu, 2008

In the paper

“Van den Bosch et al. (2016) estimate that the storage capacity of the World Wide Web doubles every 3 years, with its computational capacity doubling every 1.5 years.”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Introduction and the section on estimating search-engine size describe estimates of indexed Web pages, not storage or computational capacity. Searches for both capacities and the claimed three-year and 1.5-year doubling intervals found no passage addressing them in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  cites Van den Bosch et al. (2016) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The first reported direct transmission of information between two human brains without intervention of motor or peripheral sensory systems occurred in 2014, using a brain-to-brain communication technique referred to as “hyperinteraction””

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Abstract calls this the first human brain-to-brain interface, describes transmission without motor or peripheral sensory systems, and uses “hyperinteraction” for the communication approach. The Introduction likewise calls it the first demonstration of non-invasive direct communication between human minds. The source paper is dated 2014; page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Grau et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“In 2016, much of the world’s Internet traffic was transmitted via undersea fiber-optic cables; the 6,600 km-long MAREA Facebook/Microsoft-owned cable was estimated to carry 160 Tb/sec of data across the Atlantic Ocean”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Hecht, 2016 source

In the paper

“However, there is currently a consensus that neurons and synapses constitute the fundamental electrochemical processing units of the human brain”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The paper’s Abstract describes brain information processing as taking place in networks of neurons connected by synapses, with neurons immersed in a common electrochemical environment. This supports the citing sentence’s broad characterization, although the paper does not use the phrase “fundamental electrochemical processing units.” No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Gkoupidenis et al., 2017 source
• Partly supported

  The Abstract (page not provided) says brain information processing relies on connections between neurons, and the section “Information transfer at synapses” describes synapses transmitting information to postsynaptic neurons. This supports their central role in neural processing, but the paper does not specifically characterize neurons and synapses as the fundamental electrochemical processing units of the human brain. The Introduction’s reference to a growing consensus concerns the mechanisms of long-term potentiation, not that characterization. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  cites Jackman and Regehr, 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“For example, quantum dot fullerenes have been employed for in vitro and in vivo cellular membrane potential measurements”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Conclusions report imaging membrane-potential changes with QD–peptide–C60 probes in cultured cells and primary neurons, as well as in vivo imaging of cortical electrical stimulation. The in vivo Results describe fluorescence responses measured in anesthetized mice. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Nag et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“A recently developed ultra-low-power artificial synapse for neural computing has demonstrated the capacity to provide 500 distinct states”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The paper describes ENODe as a low-energy artificial synapse for neuromorphic computing. Its neuromorphic-behavior passage reports that 500 applied pulses produced 500 distinct conductance states, also shown in Fig. 2a. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Van de Burgt et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“The use of carbon-nanotube-based electrical stimulation of targets deep within the brain has been proposed as a novel treatment modality for patients with Parkinson’s disease and other CNS disorders”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Parkinson disease section proposes carbon-nanotube-based deep brain stimulation as a possible treatment for Parkinson disease, based on neuronal stimulation findings. It does not propose that specific method for other CNS disorders; its broader discussion concerns nanotechnology generally. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Srikanth and Kessler, 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“This is primarily due to the BBB forming a dynamic, blood-and-brain-regulated, strict physical, transport, metabolic, and immunologic barrier while it is permeable to O2 and CO2 and other gaseous molecules, as well as water and other lipid soluble substances (Serlin et al., 2015), the barrier is very restrictive to large molecules.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Serlin et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“The human brain might even have more than 100 times higher computational capacity than previously thought, based on the discovery that dendrites may generate nearly 10 times as many electrochemical spikes as do neuron soma, and are hybrids that process both analog and digital signals”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Moore et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Non-invasive neural BMI interface strategies include the use of EEG, magnetoencephalography (MEG), fMRI (Miyawaki et al., 2008) and optical strategies, including fNIRS (Naseer and Hong, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Miyawaki et al. citation is attached to fMRI, not to the sentence’s EEG, MEG, or fNIRS examples. The Discussion reports reconstructing visual images from human fMRI signals, and a later passage discusses the approach’s potential for brain-machine interfaces. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Miyawaki et al., 2008 source
• Supported

  The Introduction lists EEG, MEG, fMRI, and fNIRS as modalities used for brain-signal acquisition and explicitly calls fNIRS an optical imaging modality. The Future prospects section also describes fNIRS-based BCIs as non-invasive. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Naseer and Hong, 2015 source

In the paper

“Once injected, the neuralnanorobots would have access to the dense microvasculature of human brain, which is composed of an estimated ∼100 billion capillaries, with a combined surface area of ∼20 m2 and a total length of ∼400 miles.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Introduction’s “Anatomical considerations” section reports more than 100 billion capillaries in the human brain with a total length of approximately 400 miles. It says the capillary endothelium has a much larger surface area than the choroid plexus, but does not give the claimed figure of approximately 20 m². No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Pardridge, 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A four-brain Brainet system was dubbed an “organic computer” for mimicking simple computer-like operations, such as information-input retention, in a memory-like buffer composed of four serially connected rat brains (Pais-Vieira et al., 2015). This experimental Brainet system always outperformed single-brain computation performance, particularly for discrimination tasks, in which the four brains “”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Brainet for stimulus classification; page unavailable) report that a four-rat Brainet outperformed individual rats on stimulus discrimination and produced an overall classification vote. But the Methods (Adaptive decoding algorithm; page unavailable) describe votes calculated from individual neurons, not a vote cast by each brain. The Discussion says performance was “equal or superior” in all cases, so “always outperformed” overstates the finding. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Pais-Vieira et al., 2015 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A 10 μm3 volume of endoneurobots (Figure 3) would subsequently egress the bloodstream, traverse the BBB by methods that have been extensively reviewed elsewhere (Freitas, 2016), enter the brain parenchyma, and begin to navigate within the neuropil. Subsequently, they would enter the neuron cell soma and position themselves intracellularly within the AIS (Martins et al., 2016).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Freitas, 2016
• Supported

  Section 5.2 describes endoneurobots as 10 µm³ robots that leave the bloodstream, enter the brain parenchyma, navigate the neuropil, enter a neuron soma, and position themselves intracellularly in the axon initial segment. Section 5.3 also refers to the protocol endoneurobots use to cross the blood–brain barrier. The detailed BBB methods are attributed to Freitas (2016), not to this source. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Martins et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“Power transmission is accomplished ultrasonically to enable low-efficiency (7%, 11.6 dB) links, yielding ∼500 μW of received power (>107 higher than the ∼40 pW EM transmission available at a similar-size scale) with a 1 mm2 interrogator, which may eventually provide ∼10 μm sensing nodes.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Power Delivery section (p. 5) models an ultrasonic link for a 100 µm node embedded 2 mm into the brain and reports 7% efficiency and approximately 500 µW received with a 1 mm² interrogator. It gives the link efficiency as −11.6 dB, not the claim’s positive 11.6 dB; these are modeled results, not a demonstrated transmission. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Seo et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“There are currently two different types of BMI systems. One type samples the neural activity of a single brain and unidirectionally controls an external device (Lebedev, 2014), while the other type (sensory BMI) includes sensory feedback from the device to the brain (O’Doherty et al., 2011).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Lebedev citation is attached to the first type of BMI, not to the sensory-feedback type cited to O’Doherty. In “BMIs that enable arm movements” (page unavailable), the paper describes cortical activity being decoded to control a robotic arm, supporting the attributed description of neural activity controlling an external device. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Lebedev, 2014 source
• Supported

  The paper’s Abstract (page not provided) describes a brain–machine–brain interface that sends motor commands to an external actuator and returns tactile feedback to the brain through somatosensory-cortex stimulation. That supports the sensory-feedback type of BMI for which this paper is cited; the separate claim about unidirectional systems cites a different source. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites O’Doherty et al., 2011 source

In the paper

“The degradation of PSD proteins via the ubiquitin-proteasome system (Bingol and Schuman, 2006) also sculpts the PSD structure and plays a primary role in synaptic plasticity.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Supplementary Figure 3 caption reports faster degradation of a proteasome reporter in stimulated dendritic spines, supporting local proteasome activity. It does not show degradation of PSD proteins, remodeling of PSD structure, or a primary role in synaptic plasticity. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Bingol and Schuman, 2006 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“They play a crucial role in brain information processing (IBM, 2008) and are involved in learning and memory (Black et al., 1990; Bliss and Collingridge, 1993; Holtmaat and Svoboda, 2009; Liu et al., 2012), long-term and short-term memory storage and deletion (Kandel, 2001; Lee et al., 2008), and temporal information processing (Fuhrmann et al., 2002).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites IBM, 2008
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Black et al., 1990 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bliss and Collingridge, 1993 source

In the paper

“Neuron-silicon junctions were spontaneously formed using the nerve cells of a mammalian brain, which permitted direct stimulation of nerve cells (Fromherz and Stett, 1995; Offenhausser, 1996; Vassanelli and Fromherz, 1997; Schätzthauer and Fromherz, 1998).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fromherz and Stett, 1995 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Offenhausser, 1996
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Vassanelli and Fromherz, 1997 source

In the paper

“Synapses (either of the 5–25% electrical or 75–95% chemical variety (DeFelipe and Fariñas, 1992) are key components of the neural network that processes information.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites DeFelipe and Fariñas, 1992 source

In the paper

“The BBB is not a perfect barrier, and perijunctional gaps of 0.5 μm have been reported (Stewart et al., 1987; Fraser and Dallas, 1993).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stewart et al., 1987 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fraser and Dallas, 1993 source

In the paper

“It is conceivable that within the next 20–30 years, neuralnanorobotics may be developed to enable a safe, secure, instantaneous, real-time interface between the human brain and biological and non-biological computing systems, empowering brain-to-brain interfaces (BTBI), brain-computer interfaces (BCI), and, in particular, sophisticated brain/cloud interfaces (B/CI).”

In the paper

“Subsequent to navigating the human vasculature, three species of neuralnanorobots (endoneurobots, gliabots, and synaptobots) could traverse the blood–brain barrier (BBB), enter the brain parenchyma, ingress into individual human brain cells, and autoposition themselves at the axon initial segments of neurons (endoneurobots), within glial cells (gliabots), and in intimate proximity to synapses (syn”

In the paper

“Neuralnanorobotics may also enable a B/CI with controlled connectivity between neural activity and external data storage and processing, via the direct monitoring of the brain’s ∼86 × 109 neurons and ∼2 × 1014 synapses.”

In the paper

“One promising strategy for enabling such a system, denoted here as a “human brain/cloud interface” (“B/CI”), would be based on technologies referred to here as “neuralnanorobotics.””

In the paper

“A stable, secure, real-time system may allow for interfacing the cloud with the human brain.”

In the paper

“Future neuralnanorobotics technologies are anticipated to facilitate accurate diagnoses and eventual cures for the ∼400 conditions that affect the human brain.”

In the paper

“A neuralnanorobotically enabled human B/CI might serve as a personalized conduit, allowing persons to obtain direct, instantaneous access to virtually any facet of cumulative human knowledge.”

In the paper

“Through TS, individuals might experience episodic segments of the lives of other willing participants (locally or remote) to, hopefully, encourage and inspire improved understanding and tolerance among all members of the human family.”

In the paper

“An ongoing international “Nanofactory Collaboration” headed by Robert Freitas and Ralph Merkle has the primary objective of constructing the world’s first nanofactory, which will permit the mass manufacture of advanced autonomous diamondoid neuralnanorobots for both medical and non-medical applications”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Freitas and Merkle, 2004
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Freitas and Merkle, 2006
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Freitas, 2009 source

In the paper

“Neuralnanorobots are also expected to empower many non-medical paradigm-shifting applications, including significant human cognitive enhancement, by providing a platform for direct access to supercomputing storage and processing capabilities and interfacing with artificial intelligence systems.”

In the paper

“A specialized application might be the capacity to engage in fully immersive experiential/sensory experiences, including what is referred to here as “transparent shadowing” (TS).”

In the paper

“When intended for use as a component of a B/CI system, carbon-nanotube-based electrical stimulation would also require a two-way information pathway at single-neuron resolution for neuronal electrochemical information recording.”

In the paper

“The role of synapses as processing units of the human brain is reinforced by the results of computational simulation, which indicate that the computational power of a network is increased using dynamic synapses.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maass and Zador, 1999 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fuhrmann et al., 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kuzum et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“Current commercial 4G networks provide broadband speeds of up to 100 Mbits/sec.”

In the paper

“A neuralnanorobotics-mediated human B/CI, potentially available within 20–30 years, will require broadband Internet access with extremely high upload and download speeds, compared to today’s rates.”

In the paper

“Synapses are elements of the neural network that play a critical role in processing information in the brain, being involved in learning, long-term and short-term memory storage and deletion, and temporal information processing”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Black et al., 1990 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bliss and Collingridge, 1993 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kandel, 2001 source

In the paper

“United States carriers have stated that they plan to deploy 5G technology in 2020 that will eventually “bring speeds of around 10 gigabits per second to your phone. That’s more than 600 times faster than typical 4G speeds of today’s mobile phones, and 10 times faster than Google Fiber’s standard home broadband service””

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Finley, 2018

In the paper

“For intravenous injection, at least 90% of nanoparticles have been observed to be sequestered within tissues and organs prior to reaching the brain (Calvo et al., 2001), so intra-arterial injections might be more reliable.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Calvo et al., 2001 source

In the paper

“This strategy utilizes unidirectional electrical stimulation, which is more precise and avoids the surgical risks associated with deep macroelectrode insertion, used with current methods of deep brain stimulation”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayberg et al., 2005 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Taghva et al., 2013 source

In the paper

“Currently, invasive1 and non-invasive brain–computer interfaces and non-invasive brain-to-brain communication systems have already been experimentally demonstrated and are the subject of serious research worldwide.”

In the paper

“The human cerebellum and cerebral cortex together hold the vast majority (99.2%) of brain neurons”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Azevedo et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“At the cellular level, the average human brain is estimated to contain (86.06 ± 8.2) × 109 neurons, with ∼80.2% (69.03 ± 6.65 × 109 neurons) located in the cerebellum, ∼19% (16.34 ± 2.17 × 109 neurons) located in the cerebral cortex, and only ∼0.8% (0.69 ± 0.12 × 109 neurons) located throughout the rest of the brain”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Azevedo et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“According to one study, “Global Internet traffic in 2021 will be equivalent to 127 times the volume of the entire global Internet in 2005. Globally, Internet traffic will reach 30 GB per capita by 2021, up from 10 GB per capita in 2016””

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Cisco, 2017

In the paper

“In addition, synapses, numbering (2.42 ± 0.29) × 1014 in the average human brain, are collectively estimated to process information at spiking rates of (4.31 ± 0.86) × 1015 spikes/sec, empowering the human brain to process data at (5.52 ± 1.13) × 1016 bits/sec”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Martins et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“The human brain comprises a remarkable information storage and processing system that possesses an extraordinary computation-per-volume efficiency, with an average weight of 1400 g and a volume of ∼1350 cm3, contained within an “average” intracranial volume of ∼1,700 cm3.”

In the paper

“As of October 2018, the average Internet peak connection speed was 189.33 Mbps in Singapore and 100.07 Mbps in the United States”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Kemp, 2018

In the paper

“However, the primary challenge for worldwide global cloud-based information processing technologies is the speed of access to the system, or latency.”

In the paper

“The human brain’s functional action potential based information is estimated as 5.52 × 1016 bits/sec (Martins et al., 2012), with a brain power output estimated at 15–25 W and a power density of 1.1–1.8 × 104 W/m3 at an operating temperature of 37.3°C”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Martins et al., 2012 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Freitas, 1999b

In the paper

“While the whole-brain glia/neuron ratio is ∼1:1, there are significant differences between brain domains. For example, the glia/neuron ratio of the cerebral cortex is 3.72:1 (60.84 billion glia; 16.34 billion neurons) but only 0.23:1 (16.04 billion glia; 69.03 billion neurons) in the cerebellum; the basal ganglia, diencephalon, and brainstem have a combined ratio of 11.35:1”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Azevedo et al., 2009 source

In the paper

“Since it has been shown that certain customized nanoparticles may damage dopaminergic and serotoninergic systems, a further detailed analysis of the biodistribution and metabolism of nanoparticles will be required.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cupaioli et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“Real-time monitoring of the whole human brain (by placing neuralnanorobots within each neuron and nearby synaptic connections to record/transmit data from localized neuron and synapse spiking) may provide redundant data that might be employed in the development of validation protocols.”

In the paper

“Another approximation, based on combining estimates for the different brain regions, produced a similar value of 94.2 ± 11.3 × 109 neurons for the whole human brain”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Martins et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“However, small peptides may cross the BBB by either non-specific fluid-phase endocytosis or receptor-mediated transcytosis (RMT) mechanisms.”

In the paper

“The ratio of glia to neurons likely has functional relevance (Nedergaard et al., 2003) and varies between different brain regions.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nedergaard et al., 2003 source

In the paper

“However, several neuronal noise sources influence the reliability and precision of neuronal signaling, so stimulus-response functions are sometimes unreliable and are dissociated from what is being encoded via spike activity”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bialek and Rieke, 1992 source

In the paper

“Synapse loss, as occurs in Alzheimer’s patients, is intimately associated with cognitive decline”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dekosky and Scheff, 1990 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Terry et al., 1991 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Scheff and Price, 2006 source

In the paper

“The global storage capacity of Internet data centers in 2018 was 1450 exabytes”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Statistica, 2018

In the paper

“The global economic impact of cloud-based information processing over the next few decades may be at least an order of magnitude higher once cloud services are combined in previously unimagined ways, disrupting entire industries”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Miraz et al., 2015

In the paper

“A brief quantification of the brain’s constituents and operational parameters includes ∼1,350 cm3 (∼75%) brain cells, ∼200 cm3 (15%) blood, and up to ∼150 cm3 (10%) of cerebrospinal fluid”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Rengachary and Ellenbogen, 2005

In the paper

“The raw computational power of the human brain has been estimated to range from 1013 to 1016 operations/sec”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Merkle, 1989

In the paper

“Dendrites comprise more than 90% of neural tissue, so knowing that they are much more active than the soma would fundamentally alter our understanding of how the brain processes information.”

In the paper

“Conventional fiber-optic cables transfer trillions of bits/sec between massive data centers.”

In the paper

“For example, the current round-trip latency rate for transatlantic loops between New York and London is ∼90 ms”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Verizon, 2014

In the paper

“As of November 2018, the fastest supercomputer worldwide was Summit, developed at the United States Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Tennessee), with 122.3 petaflops on the High Performance Linpack (HPL) benchmark.”

In the paper

“Within the next few decades, neuralnanorobotics may enable a non-destructive, real-time, ultrahigh-resolution interface between the human brain and external computing platforms such as the “cloud.””

In the paper

“The monitoring of synapses is expected to be essential for a stable and robust fully functional real-time B/CI.”

In the paper

“These data would be transferred from the synaptobots to corresponding endoneurobots (in some cases, with communications and other support from nearby gliabots). Once the data is received by the endoneurobots, it would proceed to the previously installed in vivo high-speed nanofiber-optic network, for subsequent transfer to the central units that are responsible for transmitting data to an external”

In the paper

“Neuralnanorobotics may also be massively distributed, whereas surgically introduced neural implants must be positioned in one or several specific locations.”

In the paper

“Current technological trajectories appear to be converging toward the creation of systems that will have the capacity to empower a human B/CI.”

In the paper

“An optimal ingress strategy for all species of neuralnanorobots may employ the most rapid route to the human brain through the vasculature.”

In the paper

“More specifically, endoneurobots are autonomous neuron-resident neuralnanorobots that interface with all ∼86 × 109 human–brain neurons at the AIS to directly monitor and interact with action-potential-based electrically processed information.”

In the paper

“A process akin to “diapedesis” (the movement of leukocytes out of the circulatory system and toward the site of tissue damage or infection) might be employed by B/CI neuralnanorobots to traverse the BBB.”

In the paper

“Conversely, neuralnanorobotics technologies may possess the appropriate scale for optimally enabling BCI, exhibiting suitable mobility, being minimally invasive, imparting negligible localized tissue damage, and possessing robust monitoring capabilities over distinct information channels without requiring conventional surgical implantation.”

In the paper

“All these data would be continually processed at sub-millisecond resolution, enabling a virtually real-time data stream between the human brain and the cloud.”

In the paper

“However, since the human brain possesses cellular (neuron) and sub-cellular (synapse) processing elements, any technology that is capable of establishing a long-term and non-destructive, real-time human interface with the cloud must embody the following capabilities: (1) ultrahigh-resolution mobility, (2) autonomous or semi-autonomous activity, (3) non-intrusive (ideally, physiologically impercept”

In the paper

“One of the other potential applications of syringe-injectable mesh nanoelectronics is in vivo multiplexed neural network recording.”

In the paper

“Neuralnanorobots could monitor relevant functional and structural connectome data, functional- action-potential-based electrical information processing that occurs within synapses and neurons, and synaptic and neuronal structural changes associated with processing such electrolytic-based functional data (Seung, 2011).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Seung, 2011 source

In the paper

“The synaptobots would reside in the proper monitoring position within the neurons, in close proximity to presynaptic or postsynaptic structures. Once in place, these neuralnanorobots would monitor the action potentials and the structural changes initiated by the action-potential-based functional data.”

In the paper

“The synaptobots would also enter the human body via the bloodstream, cross the BBB (possibly assisted by auxiliary transport nanorobots), enter the brain parenchyma, commence navigation within the neuropil, enter the neuron cell soma, and then proceed intracellularly into the pre-synaptic or post-synaptic structure of a synapse.”

In the paper

“Synaptobots (Figure 5), the most diminutive (0.5 μm3) of the three types of neuralnanorobots, are responsible for monitoring synapses, which are relevant sub-cellular structures of the human brain.”

In the paper

“Synaptobots are autonomous neuron-resident neuralnanorobots that might employ multiple flexible stalk-mounted nanosensors to interface with each of the ∼2 × 1014 synapses of the human brain to directly monitor and interact with synaptically processed and stored information.”

In the paper

“Neuralnanorobots might be transdermally injected, after which they would navigate the vasculature and anchor to the endothelial cells of the BBB.”

In the paper

“Current techniques, whether in present-day or extrapolated future forms, appear to be unscalable and incapable of fulfilling all of the temporal or spatial resolution requirements necessary for a properly comprehensive fully functional human B/CI.”

In the paper

“Once arrived at their designated neurons, the endoneurobots would autolocate and settle into their monitoring positions, intimately yet unobtrusively.”

In the paper

“Synaptobots would detect virtually all of the synaptically processed action potentials and their waveforms and report synaptically processed spikes into the data handling system.”

In the paper

“These shortcomings suggest that neuralnanorobotics may be a preferred solution to the formidable challenges ahead in the development of B/CI technologies.”

In the paper

“Should large BBB junctional gaps be detected by the neuralnanorobots, they may be exploited to penetrate within the neuropil.”

In the paper

“The “typical” PSD consists of a disk-like structure with an average diameter of 300–400 nm (range 200–800 nm), a thickness of 30–60 nm (Baude et al., 1993; Rácz et al., 2004; Okabe, 2007; Sheng and Hoogenraad, 2007), volume of ∼7.5 × 106 nm3, and mass of ∼1.1 GDa (Chen et al., 2005).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baude et al., 1993 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Rácz et al., 2004
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Okabe, 2007 source

In the paper

“Since action potentials might be initiated in different subcellular compartments, the endoneurobots would be anchored at the AIS (the most likely location for the initiation of action potentials), where they would monitor most action potentials.”

In the paper

“Each of these electrodes interface with very diminutive and specific brain regions, and are always confined to the surface areas of highly localized domains.”

In the paper

“Gliabots are glia-resident autonomous neuralnanorobots that are endowed with the capacity to monitor human–brain glial cells and may further serve as supportive infrastructure elements of the system.”

In the paper

“For the monitoring of neuronal structural changes (some of these triggered by the processing of action potentials), once they are securely anchored to the internal neuron membrane surface (with “typical” neurons having a “volume of 14,000 μm3 or (∼24 μm)3), endoneurobots and synaptobots might employ a tactile scanning probe to image the surrounding membrane surface area of (1.4 μm)2 in ∼2 sec at ∼”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Freitas, 1999b

In the paper

“Consequently, neuralnanorobots would assist with the prediction of neurotransmitter bursts that traverse each synaptic gap.”

In the paper

“Such a capacity may be anticipated to elevate human collaboration, understanding, respect, and empathy to previously unimaginable levels (Domschke and Boehm, 2014).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Domschke and Boehm, 2014

In the paper

“perhaps eventually leading to the minimization or elimination of most armed conflict.”

In the paper

“Under strict protocols, accredited spatial hosts would agree to allow single or multiple attendees (conceivably numbering in the millions) to literally experience portions of their life experiences over a predetermined timeline/schedule.”

In the paper

“TS may hold potential to facilitate understanding of the experiences of other people and to significantly increase empathy.”

In the paper

“The full sensorial realm (e.g., physical presence, tactile sensations, olfactory, visual, tastes, and auditory) would be experienced by the attendees, as if they inhabited the body of the spatial host.”

In the paper

“This may translate to the establishment of a very brief (∼millisecond) latency, from spatial host to attendee, to allow for this virtually instantaneous self-speak screening.”

In the paper

“These enhancements may assist humanity to adapt emergent artificial intelligence systems as human-augmentation technologies, facilitating the mitigation of new challenges to the human species.”

In the paper

“The host will have no mental or physical perception that they are being “shadowed” by the attendees.”

In the paper

“Tagging all 2.42 × 1014 synapses in the human brain with one robot each would require 24–242 × 1012 synaptobots at 0.5 μm3 per robot, giving a total fleet volume of 1.2–12 × 1013 μm3 or 12–120 cm3 and representing ∼0.9–9% of total brain volume-just within the “safe” tissue and organ intrusiveness limits.”

In the paper

“Longer-term changes in the PSD structure and composition (from hours to days) involve altered protein synthesis, either within the neuronal cell body, or dendrites (Sheng and Hoogenraad, 2007).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sheng and Hoogenraad, 2007 source

In the paper

“Although the attendees would retain their own identities and experience real-time live-feed full immersion into a portion of the host’s life experiences”

In the paper

“However, these TS sessions would offer exponentially higher resolution in every respect.”

In the paper

“These may include optional text, imagery, and streaming video displays that are superimposed at customizable locations within the user’s field of vision.”

In the paper

“It may be likely that via TS, all knowledge-based queries and responses, as well as fully immersive experiences within avatars and other users, could include an optional toggle mode.”

In the paper

“Cross-gender experiences might impact real-life relationships between genders, due to increased empathy and understanding.”

In the paper

“Although beyond the scope and space constraints of this paper, we acknowledge that there will likely be several “display modes” available to B/CI users once the technology matures.”

In the paper

“Although they would perceive the vocal instructions of the host, to temporally experience exactly what the spatial host is experiencing, for the sake of personal privacy, attendees might, by default, be completely blocked from any access to the thoughts, emotions, or self-speak of their spatial hosts (Ford, 2010).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Ford, 2010

In the paper

“For example, perhaps those of majority ethnic groups might be more sensitized with the issue of racism against those of minority ethnic groups, once they “experience” it for themselves through TS sessions.”

In the paper

“When this mode is engaged, internalized visualizations might be projected as on to a “float screen” that can be superimposed within the user’s field of vision, where the float screen can be made more prominent in the user’s experience via dynamic fading.”

In the paper

“For this assessment to take place via AI, the self-speak in question would have to somehow be processed in real time/on the fly, as any records of such in any form, would most likely be considered as highly unethical.”

In the paper

“Once established and potentially utilized by a growing demographic, this capability might have strong potential for conveying profound beneficial implications for human advancement across multiple domains”

In the paper

“For example, in cases of unpleasant pain, the attendee might activate an instantaneous default auto-disengagement protocol once a particular physiological threshold is perceived by the B/CI system.”

In the paper

“Human B/CI systems mediated by neuralnanorobots might also upgrade mutual human understanding and collaboration by making it possible to engage humans in TS experiences, which could enable considerably improved understanding and tolerance among all members of our diverse and amazing human family.”

In the paper

“However, it is likely that any self-speak of a spatial host will include their most private and intimate thoughts.”

In the paper

“Neuralnanorobotics strategies involve the direct, comprehensive monitoring of the ∼86 × 109 neurons of the human brain, as well as its ∼2 × 1014 synapses and ∼84 × 109 glial cells.”

In the paper

“There exists a clear and strong association between synapse bouton size/shape and the organellar and macromolecular changes that occur within the bouton.”

In the paper

“Experimental data has provided a wide range of measured human intracranial volumes (1152–1839 cm3) and total average cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) volume (82–125.3 cm3), with a total brain-cell parenchyma volume of 1319 cm3, including 489 cm3 of white matter and 786 cm3 of gray matter (Vaidyanathana et al., 1997; Nopoulos et al., 2000).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Vaidyanathana et al., 1997 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nopoulos et al., 2000 source

In the paper

“Neuralnanorobotically empowered B/CI technologies accompanied by supercomputing technologies might permit users to experience fully immersive, real-time episodes of the lives of any willing human participant on the planet, via non-intrusive “Transparent Shadowing (TS).””

In the paper

“Hence, in essence, anyone on the planet (who is B/CI enabled) might be engaged as either a spatial host or an attendee.”

In the paper

“possibly assisting with the further development of human collaboration and empathy”

In the paper

“Experiencing episodes of the lives of those in other cultures and ethnic groups could promote cross-cultural understanding and tolerance, improving prospects for the reduction of hatred and racism.”

In the paper

“Neuralnanorobotic entities would transmit the nominal ∼5 × 1016 bits/sec of synaptically processed electronic information, encoded in ∼4 × 1015 spikes/sec flowing within the entire living human brain, wirelessly via a nanorobotic auxiliary 30 cm3 volume nanoscale fiber-optic system that is capable of handling ∼1018 bits/sec.”

In the paper

“these guests would have no capacity to control any aspect of the host.”

In the paper

“Potential physiological transference issues may arise when two or more individuals are engaged in shared TS activities.”

In the paper

“For instance, the activity-dependent modification of PSD proteins occurring over timescales of seconds to hours is believed to underlie plasticity processes such as LTP and LTD (Sheng and Hoogenraad, 2007).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sheng and Hoogenraad, 2007 source

In the paper

“Three proposed classes of neuralnanorobots (endoneurobots, gliabots, and synaptobots) may employ ∼3375 nm3 FET-based neuroelectric nanosensors to detect and monitor virtually all individual action potentials and their waveforms.”

In the paper

“Systems have performed well during acute recordings, but failed to function reliably over clinically relevant timelines, the result of brain tissue reaction against implants, making biocompatibility of implanted BCI systems a primary concern in current device design (Polikov et al., 2005; Winslow and Tresco, 2010; Tresco and Winslow, 2011).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Polikov et al., 2005 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Winslow and Tresco, 2010 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tresco and Winslow, 2011 source

In the paper

“In TS, an individual might literally experience another person’s life, through their own eyes, for a predetermined duration via an “extra life” session.”

In the paper

“Further, it might transition totally immersive virtual and augmented realities to unprecedented levels, allowing for more meaningful experiences and fuller/richer expression for, and between, users.”

In the paper

“In experimental work, dendritic spines that received LTP induction increased in volume, from 50 to 200% (Alvarez and Sabatini, 2007), with this increase persisting for more than 1 h following stimulation (Alvarez and Sabatini, 2007).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Alvarez and Sabatini, 2007 source

In the paper

“Given our biologically constrained cognitive abilities, the impossibility of the human mind to keep pace with the increasingly rapid generation of human knowledge is evident.”

In the paper

“During B/CI operations, one ∼10 μm3 endoneurobot would reside within every brain resident neuron, giving a total endoneurobot volume of 0.86 cm3, or only ∼0.06% of total brain volume.”

In the paper

“With neuralnanorobotically enabled B/CI, individuals might engage in the TS of voluntary or remunerated “spatial hosts.””

In the paper

“A human B/CI system mediated by neuralnanorobotics could empower individuals with instantaneous access to all cumulative human knowledge available in the cloud and significantly improve human learning capacities and intelligence.”

In the paper

“This may permit real-time brain-state monitoring and data extraction into an external supercomputer that communicates directly with the cloud.”

In the paper

“It might be possible that an eventual shift in gender attitudes could lead to decreased gender-related and domestic violence.”

In the paper

“Similarly, minorities who experience a majority host might come to realize that many actions perceived by them as purposeful racism were entirely unintentional.”

In the paper

“Remarkably, recent evidence points toward the rapid exchange of PSD proteins, such as AMPARS and PSD-95, even between neighboring synapses under steady-state conditions (Sheng and Hoogenraad, 2007).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sheng and Hoogenraad, 2007 source