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Cited by 95Personality Traits and PsychologyPsychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual OffendingBullying, Victimization, and Aggression

Empathy at the heart of darkness: empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression.

Open access
Heym, Nadja, Firth, Jennifer, Kibowski, Fraenze, Sumich, Alexander, Egan, Vincent, Bloxsom, Claire A. J.·2019·Frontiers in Psychiatry
DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00095PMC PMC6423894
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Abstract

The dark triad (DT) traits - psychopathy, narcissism and Machiavellianism - have collectively been linked to reduced empathy and increased aggression; however, their association with distinct empathic subtypes remains unclear; and unique links to indirect relational aggression (IRA) have not been delineated. Moreover, whether dark traits should be conceptualised individually, as a dyad or as a triad with a dark core centred around the absence of empathy is debated. The current study examines (i) whether impaired empathy indeed represents a common ‘dark core’ binding Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy, and (ii) this core explains associations between the dark traits and IRA. Participants (N=301, 262F/39M) completed measures of the DT traits, cognitive and affective empathy components and IRA (Social Exclusion, Malicious Humour and Guilt Induction). The individual traits model without links between narcissism and IRA showed the best fit, suggesting that, at least in the context of IRA, the DT traits are best viewed as three independent personality traits. Distinct cognitive and affective empathy deficits and capacities are seen in the DT. Peripheral responsivity was the only type of empathy deficit associated with all dark traits, but unrelated to IRA. Psychopathy was the strongest indicator of impaired empathy and all IRAs; however, only online simulation, an affect-related cognitive empathy facet, partially mediated the relationships of psychopathy and Machiavellianism with IRA. Whilst the unique pathways for the dark trait traits suggest stronger alignment of psychopathy and Machiavellianism in their empathic deficits and indirect aggression; the data do not support the notion that an unempathic dark core underpinning all three traits drives indirect aggression. This is the first paper delineating the specific empathic deficits involved using a facet approach and their link to indirect forms of aggression, and as such further inform theoretical models of aggression in the DT, and offer some clarity on the debates surrounding the unempathic dark core in the DT.

Verified 2026-10-09 · 1 reference not checked yet

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study tests whether impaired empathy forms a shared “dark core” linking Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy, and whether empathy deficits explain indirect relational aggression (IRA). It finds the three dark traits are best modeled as separate monads, with psychopathy showing the broadest empathy and IRA impairments and online simulation partially mediating psychopathy/Machiavellianism–IRA links.

Key findings

  • The best-fitting model was the “dark monads” model without paths from narcissism to IRA: χ²(3) = 3.401, p = 0.334, RMSEA = 0.021, SRMR = 0.014, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 0.993; dark dyad and dark triad core models showed unsatisfactory fit.
  • All three dark traits were associated with reduced peripheral responsivity, but peripheral responsivity was unrelated to IRA, challenging the idea that an unempathic dark core drives indirect relational aggression.
  • Psychopathy was negatively related to all empathy facets and positively related to all three IRA outcomes (social exclusion, malicious humor, guilt induction); Machiavellianism was negatively related to online simulation and peripheral responsivity and positively related only to guilt induction.
  • Only online simulation significantly and negatively predicted all IRA outcomes in regression: social exclusion b = −0.042, malicious humor b = −0.034, guilt induction b = −0.047 (all ps < 0.001); it partially mediated the relationships of psychopathy and Machiavellianism with IRA.

Methods

  • Participants were 301 adults (262 female, 39 male; age range 18–71, M = 26.87, SD = 11.66), recruited from two UK university participant pools and general online participation schemes.
  • Measures included the 27-item Dark Triad of Personality Scale (D3-Short) for Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy; the 31-item Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE) for perspective taking, online simulation, emotional contagion, proximal responsivity, and peripheral responsivity; and the 25-item Indirect Aggression Scale–Aggressor version for social exclusion, malicious humor, and guilt induction.
  • Analyses regressed IRA outcomes on empathy variables, then estimated path models using maximum likelihood in Mplus to compare dark monad, dark dyad, and dark triad conceptualizations, with indirect effects examined where applicable.

Limitations

  • The paper states that findings rely on self-report measures rather than psychophysiological indices or observed aggressive behavior, and that the sample over-represents females, so replication in a predominantly male sample is needed.
  • The paper states that sample size restrictions prevented evaluation of bifactorial models, that the SD3 focuses on grandiose narcissism at the expense of vulnerable narcissism, and that the empathy jingle-jangle fallacy complicates comparisons across studies.
  • Evident from the text: the cross-sectional path models cannot establish temporal or causal mediation, and the non-clinical sample limits generalization to forensic or clinical populations, as the paper itself notes for indirect relational aggression.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00095

Cites

58 of 59 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 73 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    There were no significant paths between N and any of the IRA variables.

    “These analyses confirmed that there were no significant paths between N and any of the IRA variables.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Model 2a (dark dyad model without paths from N to IRA) did not reach acceptable model fit.

    “Model 2a (dark dyad model without paths from N to IRA) did not reach acceptable model fit as both the RMSEA and the TLI missed specified cut-offs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Only OS significantly and negatively predicted SE, MH, and GI.

    “only OS significantly and negatively predicted SE (unstandardized b = −0.042), MH (unstandardized b = −0.034), and GI (unstandardized b = −0.047) (all ps < 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Peripheral responsivity was unrelated to IRA.

    “Peripheral responsivity was the only type of empathy deficit associated with all dark traits, but unrelated to IRA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Distinct cognitive and affective empathy deficits and capacities are seen in the DT.

    “Distinct cognitive and affective empathy deficits and capacities are seen in the DT.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 25
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 34

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both Machiavellianism and psychopathy negatively predicted online simulation (ps ≤ 0.001).

    “Both M and P also negatively predicted OS (ps ≤ 0.001)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Age and sex were only significantly related to the ProR and EC empathy variables (ps < 0.05), and not significantly related to any of the IRA variables.

    “The analysis controlled for age and sex which were only significantly related to the ProR and EC empathy variables (ps < 0.05), and not significantly related to any of the IRA variables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Once psychopathy had been controlled, it alone remained significantly associated with all of the considered outcomes (including direct aggression).

    “Moreover, once psychopathy had been controlled, it alone remained significantly associated with all of the considered outcomes (including direct aggression).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Muris, 2017, The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Perspect Psychol Sci. source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    According to the VIM model, a selective impairment in the emotional recognition and response to distress cues, such as fearful and sad expressions, exacerbates aggression in psychopathy.

    “According to the Violence Inhibition Mechanism model [VIM; (6)], a selective impairment in the emotional recognition and response to distress cues, such as fearful and sad expressions, exacerbates aggression in psychopathy (7).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] Blair, 1995, A cognitive developmental approach to morality: investigating the psychopath, Cognition source

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    • cites [7] Blair, 2004, Reduced sensitivity to others' fearful expressions in psychopathic individuals, Person Individ Differ. source

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    Study design and conductown data

    All variables show good reliability with alphas ranging between 0.74 and 0.92.

    “All variables show good reliability with alphas ranging between 0.74 and 0.92.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Machiavellianism and psychopathy were more strongly linked to adverse psychosocial outcomes than Narcissism.

    “Machiavellianism and psychopathy were more strongly linked to adverse psychosocial outcomes than Narcissism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Muris, 2017, The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Perspect Psychol Sci. source

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    Premisecitation

    Confirmatory factor analyses suggest that a two-factor model combining psychopathy and Machiavellianism, and keeping narcissism separate, has equivalent fit to the standard three factor model.

    “Nevertheless, confirmatory factor analyses suggest that a two-factor model combining psychopathy and Machiavellianism, and keeping narcissism separate, has equivalent fit to the standard three factor model; as such, deciding between the optimal model may need to be based on theoretical grounds (12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Miller, 2016, Psychopathy and machiavellianism: a distinction without a difference?, J Personal. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Psychopathy and Machiavellianism share more overlap than they do with narcissism, and greater similarity in their associations with other CU personality correlates.

    “Psychopathy and Machiavellianism share more overlap than they do with narcissism, and greater similarity in their associations with other CU personality correlates [i.e., low Agreeableness and Conscientiousness; (12)].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Miller, 2016, Psychopathy and machiavellianism: a distinction without a difference?, J Personal. source

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    Premisecitation

    The DT traits are significantly inter-correlated with considerable convergent correlations between subscales.

    “Nevertheless, the DT traits are significantly inter-correlated (18) with considerable convergent correlations between subscales (19).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] Vernon, 2008, A behavioral genetic investigation of the dark triad and the big 5, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    • cites [19] O'Boyle, 2012, A meta-analysis of the dark triad and work behavior: a social exchange perspective, J Appl Psychol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A factor analytic study showed a stronger clustering of psychopathy and Machiavellianism with other variables capturing antisocial variance, whereas narcissism was much stronger associated with a non-antisocial factor alongside traits such as extraversion and intellect.

    “Indeed, a factor analytic study showed a stronger clustering of psychopathy and Machiavellianism with other variables (e.g., moral disengagement, unethical attitudes, and disagreeableness) capturing antisocial variance, whereas narcissism was much stronger associated with a non-antisocial factor alongside traits such as extraversion and intellect (11).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Egan, 2015, Moral disengagement, the dark triad and unethical consumer behavior, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    Premisecitation

    Empathy is central to prosocial interactions, understanding the suffering of others, and attenuates the propensity to maladaptive aggressive behavior.

    “Empathy is central to prosocial interactions, understanding the suffering of others, and attenuates the propensity to maladaptive aggressive behavior (1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Preckel, 2018, On the interaction of social affect and cognition: empathy, compassion and theory of mind, Curr Opin Behav Sci. source

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    Premisecitation

    A recent meta-analysis suggests that the DT model inadequately captures the malevolent side of personality.

    “However, a recent meta-analysis [102 studies, N = 46,234; (13)] suggests that the DT model inadequately captures the malevolent side of personality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Muris, 2017, The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Perspect Psychol Sci. source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Mixed findings might be due to the jingle-jangle fallacy, whereby different definitional constructs of cognitive (or affective) empathy have been measured and conflated across different studies.

    “Mixed findings might be due to the jingle-jangle fallacy, whereby different definitional constructs of cognitive (or affective) empathy have been measured and conflated across different studies (38).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Hall, 2018, Empathy present and future, J Soc Psychol. source

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    Premisecitation

    Reniers et al. devised a multidimensional model of empathy distinguishing between different aspects of cognitive and affective empathy.

    “Reniers et al. (40) devised a multidimensional model of empathy distinguishing between different aspects of cognitive and affective empathy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] Reniers, 2011, The QCAE: a questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy, J Personal Assess. source

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    Premisecitation

    In other cases, cognitive empathy appeared to be spared, or even increased in the case of Narcissism.

    “In other cases, cognitive empathy appeared to be spared, or even increased in the case of Narcissism, which would suggest normal or better understanding of others' thoughts and intentions (15).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Wai, 2012, The affective and cognitive empathic nature of the dark triad of personality, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    Premisecitation

    The majority of the average effect sizes for both Machiavellianism and narcissism became considerably smaller and mostly non-significant (apart from interpersonal difficulties for both and antisocial tactics for Machiavellianism).

    “In comparison, the majority of the average effect sizes for both Machiavellianism and narcissism became considerably smaller and mostly non-significant (apart from interpersonal difficulties for both and antisocial tactics for Machiavellianism).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Muris, 2017, The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Perspect Psychol Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Premisecitation

    Another recent study showed better model fit for a single latent dark core dimension compared to conceptualizing three independent traits.

    “Finally, examining the factorial structure of the DT traits, another recent study showed better model fit for a single latent dark core dimension compared to conceptualizing three independent traits (9), suggesting that the dark personalities are best represented through the single dark core and rendering the individual traits redundant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Bertl, 2017, More or less than the sum of its parts?, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    Premisecitation

    Psychopathy has been linked to direct bullying behaviors in adults, while narcissism and Machiavellianism have been linked to more indirect methods of intimidation.

    “For example, whilst psychopathy has been linked to direct bullying behaviors in adults, narcissism and Machiavellianism have been linked to more indirect methods of intimidation (27).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Baughman, 2012, Relationships between bullying behaviours and the dark triad: a study with adults, Personal Individ Differ. source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Perspective taking is essential for predicting behavior of others and manipulating them.

    “Such perspective taking is essential for predicting behavior of others and manipulating them (33).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Smith, 2010, Cognitive empathy and emotional empathy in human behavior and evolution, Psychol Record source

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    Premisecitation

    There is some evidence that all three DT traits are associated with reduced cognitive empathy, though this was driven only by psychopathy once shared variance was accounted for.

    “On the other hand, there is also some evidence that all three DT traits are associated with reduced cognitive empathy, though this was driven only by psychopathy once shared variance was accounted for (37).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Jonason, 2013, The emotional deficits associated with the dark triad traits: cognitive empathy, affective empathy, and alexithymia, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    Premisecitation

    Narcissistic individuals are particularly responsive to ego-threat.

    “For example, narcissistic individuals are particularly responsive to ego-threat [i.e., any perceived attack on their self-image; (4)].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Jones, 2010, Different provocations trigger aggression in narcissists and psychopaths, Soc Psychol Pers Sci. source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Empathy is a multidimensional construct constituting cognitive and affective components.

    “Empathy is a multidimensional construct [e.g., (32)]—constituting cognitive and affective components.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Davis, 1983, Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach, J Personal Soc Psychology source

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    Premisecitation

    Affective empathy is implicated in the functioning of the VIM model, and selective impairment in this capacity is thought to underpin aggression at least in psychopathy.

    “It is this type of empathy that is implicated in the functioning of the Violence Inhibition Mechanism model [VIM; (6)], and the selective impairment in this capacity is thought to underpin aggression at least in psychopathy (7, 34).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [6] Blair, 1995, A cognitive developmental approach to morality: investigating the psychopath, Cognition source

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    • cites [7] Blair, 2004, Reduced sensitivity to others' fearful expressions in psychopathic individuals, Person Individ Differ. source

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    • cites [34] Blair, 2005, Responding to the emotions of others: dissociating forms of empathy through the study of typical and psychiatric populations, Conscious Cogn. source

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    Premisecitation

    Psychopathy and pathological vulnerable narcissism have both been linked with increased reactive and proactive relational aggression in adults, while grandiose narcissism was linked to reduced relational aggression.

    “Similarly, whilst psychopathy and pathological vulnerable narcissism (more emotional, anxious and sensitive to criticism and rejection) have both been linked with increased reactive and proactive relational aggression in adults, grandiose narcissism (more akin to the DT-Narcissism) was linked to reduced relational aggression (31).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Knight, 2018, The HEXACO model of personality and dark triad in relational aggression, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    Premisereasoning

    These findings suggest the DT traits should be treated as independent constructs.

    “These findings suggest the DT traits should be treated as independent constructs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Muris, 2017, The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Perspect Psychol Sci. source

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    Premisecitation

    The mixed findings in the literature may partly be attributable to the measurement tools used, and their respective reliability and validity issues.

    “The mixed findings in the literature may partly be attributable to the measurement tools used, and their respective reliability and validity issues (8).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Furnham, 2013, The dark triad of personality: a 10 year review, Soc Personal Psychol Comp. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Narcissism is spared in terms of empathy deficits and indirect relational aggression.

    “while narcissism is spared”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Preliminary analyses revealed that several variables were skewed; maximum likelihood estimators can provide estimates that are robust to non-normality.

    “Preliminary analyses revealed that several variables were skewed2; however, maximum likelihood estimators can provide estimates that are robust to non-normality (45).”
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    • cites [45] Du Toit, 1999

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    A more fine-tuned facet approach within those types of empathic deficits may be more useful in predicting more specific forms of aggression.

    “Moreover, whilst most studies have focused on general or more basic assessments of affective or cognitive empathy, a more fine-tuned facet approach within those types of empathic deficits may be more useful in predicting more specific forms of aggression (39).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] Heym, 2013, The P-psychopathy continuum: facets of Psychoticism and their associations with psychopathic tendencies, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    Premisecitation

    The association for narcissism with indirect methods was weak and potentially due to the shared variance with psychopathy.

    “However, the association for narcissism was weak and potentially due to the shared variance with psychopathy (27), which would be in line with the findings of the recent meta-analysis (13).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [27] Baughman, 2012, Relationships between bullying behaviours and the dark triad: a study with adults, Personal Individ Differ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [13] Muris, 2017, The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Perspect Psychol Sci. source

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    Premisecitation

    Research has considered Machiavellianism simply a less severe expression of clinical psychopathy.

    “research has considered Machiavellianism simply a less severe expression of clinical psychopathy (52)”
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    • cites [52] Glenn, 2015, Theoretical and empirical concerns regarding the dark triad as a construct, J Personal Disord. source

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    Premisecitation

    Recent bi-factorial modeling approaches suggest that the common core of dark traits might not depend on the individual DT traits but can be seen as a separate global construct.

    “recent bi-factorial modeling approaches suggest that the common core of dark traits might not depend on the individual DT traits but can be seen as a separate global construct (56, 57)”
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    • cites [56] McLarnon, 2017, The dark triad: specific or general sources of variance?, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    • cites [57] Moshagen, 2018, The dark core of personality, Psychol Rev. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The dark triad traits are best conceptualized as distinct monads with unique pathways in terms of affective and cognitive empathy deficits and capacities, and their role in relational aggression.

    “Our findings suggest the DT traits are best conceptualized as distinct monads with unique pathways in terms of affective and cognitive empathy deficits and capacities, and their role in relational aggression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The shared deficit in peripheral responsivity may underlie the shared dark core and reflect selfishness and tough-mindedness.

    “which arguably may underlie their shared dark core and reflect selfishness and tough-mindedness”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    There is an interpretative difference between the concept of narcissism (measured as a whole) and the statistical variance that is left once the other traits have been accounted for.

    “there is an interpretative difference between the concept of narcissism (measured as a whole) and the statistical variance that is left once the other traits have been accounted for (58)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] Vize, 2018, Differences among dark triad components: a meta-analytic investigation, Personal Disord Theor Res Treat. source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Narcissism's increased perspective taking may enable them to create a more favorable self-image through understanding and predicting others' reactions.

    “perhaps enabling them to create a more favorable self-image through understanding and predicting others reactions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A recent meta-analysis revealed different degrees of overlaps for different DT measures: the SD3 incorporates more components of psychopathy, whereas the Dirty Dozen shows more overlap with Machiavellianism and narcissism.

    “A recent meta-analysis revealed different degrees of overlaps for different DT measures: the SD3 incorporates more components of psychopathy, whereas the Dirty Dozen (53) shows more overlap with Machiavellianism and narcissism (13)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Muris, 2017, The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Perspect Psychol Sci. source

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    • cites [53] Jonason, 2010, The dirty dozen: a concise measure of the dark triad, Psychol Assess. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Psychopathy showed a more severe and global pattern of maladaptive outcomes, consistent with previous research on direct aggression.

    “psychopathy showed a more severe and global pattern of maladaptive outcomes”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] Jones, 2010, Different provocations trigger aggression in narcissists and psychopaths, Soc Psychol Pers Sci. source

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    • cites [13] Muris, 2017, The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Perspect Psychol Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Due to sample size restrictions, the current study could not evaluate bi-factorial models.

    “Due to sample size restrictions we could not evaluate such models in the current study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When studied independently, narcissism is split into two subtypes, grandiose and vulnerable, which manifest differently on general personality measures and show diverging associations with hostility.

    “when studied independently, narcissism is split into two subtypes, grandiose and vulnerable (50), which manifest differently on general personality measures [e.g., the Big Five; (10)] and show diverging associations with hostility [e.g., vulnerable narcissism is linked to hostile behaviors once grandiosity and attention-seeking are controlled for; (51)]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [50] Pincus, 2010, Pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder, Ann Rev Clin Psychol. source

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    • cites [10] Egan, 2014, The Dark Triad, happiness and subjective well-being, Personal Individ Differ. source

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    • cites [51] Miller, 2011, Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism: a nomological network analysis, J Personal. source

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    Premisecitation

    Both of Renier's et al. cognitive empathy scales, online simulation and perspective taking, are defined by the capacity to make attributions about affect-akin to affect-related cognitive empathy.

    “both of Renier's et al (40) cognitive empathy scales, online simulation and perspective taking, are defined by the capacity to make attributions about affect–akin to affect-related cognitive empathy (35)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [40] Reniers, 2011, The QCAE: a questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy, J Personal Assess. source

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    • cites [35] Shamay-Tsoory, 2010, The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in affective theory of mind deficits in criminal offenders with psychopathic tendencies, Cortex source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    An overlap between constructs reflects limited theoretical distinction and suggests a need to refine measures of Machiavellianism free from psychopathic traits.

    “an overlap between constructs also reflects limited theoretical distinction, and suggests a need to refine measures of Machiavellianism, free from psychopathic traits (12)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Miller, 2016, Psychopathy and machiavellianism: a distinction without a difference?, J Personal. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Narcissism showed the greatest differentiation from the other two dark triad traits, and a more adaptive nature with increased empathic capacities (perspective taking) and lack of association with indirect relational aggression.

    “Narcissism showed the greatest differentiation from the other two, and a more adaptive nature with increased empathic capacities (perspective taking) and lack of association with IRA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Narcissism has adaptive qualities, including self-confidence.

    “there appear adaptive qualities in narcissism, including self-confidence (54)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Rauthmann, 2012, How “dark” are the Dark Triad traits?, Personal Individ Differ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The online simulation scale encompasses not just an effortful attempt to put oneself in another's position by imagining what that person is feeling but also how they may think and react (i.e., mental states).

    “this scale appears to not just encompass “an effortful attempt to put oneself in another person's position by imagining what that person is feeling” [(40); p. 90] but also how they may think and react (i.e., mental states)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] Reniers, 2011, The QCAE: a questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy, J Personal Assess. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The interpretations and comparisons with findings across the literature are based on self-report measures rather than psychophysiological indices of empathic responses or emotional reactivity and actual observed aggressive behavior.

    “they are based on self-report measures rather than psychophysiological indices of empathic responses or emotional reactivity and actual observed aggressive behavior (e.g., in the lab)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Machiavellianism demonstrates more similar, though less global empathic deficits and relational aggression as psychopathy, adding weight to research indicating greater overlap amongst these two traits.

    “Machiavellianism demonstrates more similar, though less global empathic deficits and relational aggression as psychopathy—as such adding further weight to research indicating greater overlap amongst these two traits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Relational aggression has previously been associated with cognitive empathy deficits in women.

    “relational aggression has previously been associated with cognitive empathy deficits in women (41)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] White, 2015, Callous–unemotional traits and empathy in proactive and reactive relational aggression in young women, Personal Individ Differ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Using self-reported measures to study individuals prone to dishonesty is a limitation and may have affected the results.

    “This is a limitation when using self-reported measures to study individuals prone to dishonesty and may have affected our results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The shared deficit in peripheral responsivity may still drive physical aggression.

    “this shared deficit may still drive physical aggression”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
50 of 50

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Less is known about the empathy-aggression link in the context of the other two DT traits.

    “However, less is known about the empathy-aggression link in the context of the other two DT traits.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Less is known about associations between DT and indirect forms of aggression.

    “Whilst direct aggression has been extensively studied in the context of the DT, less is known about associations with indirect forms of aggression (i.e., those that are manipulative and more covert in nature).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Prior research has not looked at these facets of cognitive and affective empathy in the context of the DT.

    “Thus, the exact nature of such specific deficits in the DT traits remains unclear, as to the knowledge of the authors, prior research has not looked at these facets of cognitive and affective empathy in the context of the DT.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The extent to which the VIM model applies to indirect aggression is less clear.

    “Moreover, whilst direct forms of aggression have been examined within the VIM model, the extent to which this model applies to indirect aggression is less clear.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Previous studies have not used the facet approach distinguishing between different aspects of affective and cognitive empathy in the context of the whole dark triad.

    “previous studies have used different measures of empathy, and none used the facet approach distinguishing between different aspects of affective and cognitive empathy in the context of the whole DT”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Indirect relational aggression is more proactive—premeditated and instrumental—in nature.

    “As IRA is more proactive—premeditated and instrumental—in nature”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    DT measures such as the SD3 focus on grandiose narcissism at the expense of vulnerable narcissism.

    “DT measures such as the SD3 focus on grandiose narcissism at the expense of vulnerable narcissism”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Intolerance toward emotions can play a role in NPD: the subject might detect feelings in others, but that perception may arouse overwhelming power deprivation, shame or loss of internal control, thus stimulating aggressive responses or withdrawal.

    “Intolerance toward emotions can play a role, since the subject might detect feelings in others, but that perception may arouse overwhelming power deprivation, shame or loss of internal control, thus stimulating aggressive responses or withdrawal (46).”

    From The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder (2023) · cites this paper as [46]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Emotional-contagion SD is impossible for its scale

    Minor

    Emotional contagion is a sum of four items scored 1-4, so scores can range only from 4 to 16. With a reported mean of 11.00 and 301 participants, its SD cannot exceed approximately 5.93; the reported 8.80 is impossible.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Muthén, 2014, Mplus 7.3.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. J.
Affiliations
  • Nottingham Trent University (GB)
  • Auckland University of Technology (NZ)
  • University of Nottingham (GB)
Corresponding author
Heym, Nadja
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Psychiatry
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2019-03-12
Volume
10
Pages
95-95
ISSN
1664-0640 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00095
PMC
PMC6423894
OpenAlex
W2921632416
Semantic Scholar
16bc06e5921dc62575c447a3c7fd66f1a3304c1a
Cited by
93
References
58
Citations by year
2026: 9 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 8
FWCI
11.10
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Keywords
Dark Triad, psychopathy, narcissism, Machiavellianism, empathy deficits, cognitive empathy, affective empathy, web-based simulation, social exclusion, guilt induction

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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