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Cited by 12Coconut Research and ApplicationsFood Science and Nutritional StudiesFood and Agricultural Sciences

Research Progress in Coconut Water: A Review of Nutritional Composition, Biological Activities, and Novel Processing Technologies

Open access
Shi, Shaoran, Wang, Wenxin, Wang, Fengzhang, Yang, Peiqing, Yang, Huanzhi, He, Xiyu, Liao, Xiaojun·2025·Foods
DOI 10.3390/foods14091503PMC PMC12072132
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Abstract

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a nutrient-rich plant extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. Coconut water (CW), the primary edible component of the fruit, has gained significant attention due to its nutritional value and increasing popularity as a functional beverage. In addition to its hydrating properties, CW is rich in essential nutrients such as sugars, minerals, and vitamins, which contribute to its diverse biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, cardioprotective, and antimicrobial effects. However, CW’s high perishability and susceptibility to rapid deterioration present significant challenges for its preservation. The growing demand for natural and fresh CW has driven the development of innovative technologies aiming at extending its shelf life while maintaining its nutritional quality and sensory attributes. This review highlights recent research advancements in CW, focusing on its nutritional composition, biological activities, and innovations in preservation technologies. The aim is to facilitate the optimization of CW beverage formulations, promote the adoption of effective preservation methods, and drive the development of high-quality and consumer-appealing CW products.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review summarizes coconut water’s nutritional composition, biological activities, and novel processing technologies, emphasizing its potential as a functional beverage and the need for preservation. It reports that CW is rich in sugars, minerals, vitamins, phenolics, and amino acids and that nonthermal technologies can improve microbial safety and shelf life, though several challenges remain.

Key findings

  • Nutritional composition: tender coconut water (TCW) is about 95.5% water, with 0.1% fat and 4% carbohydrate; a 100 mL serving is reported to contain K 290 mg, Fe 106 mg, Ca 44 mg, Na 42 mg, and Cu 26 mg. CW sugars are mainly glucose, fructose, and sucrose; it also contains B-complex vitamins, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, and free amino acids.
  • Biological activities: CW is reported to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, cardioprotective, antimicrobial, and other effects. In a rat paw edema model, maximum inhibition was 42.52% for young CW and 25.94% for mature CW; Cn-AMP2 from green CW had IC50 values of 1.25 and 1.85 mM against human glioma cell lines 1321N1 and U87MG.
  • Processing technologies: the review covers high-hydrostatic-pressure processing, high-pressure carbon dioxide (HPCD), cold plasma, pulsed electric field (PEF), pulsed light, UV-C irradiation, ultrasound, ozone, and microfiltration. HPCD at 12 MPa and 40 °C for 30 min achieved 5-log reductions in mesophilic microorganisms, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and molds and a 7-log reduction in total coliforms; PEF at 22.5 kV/cm, 119 kJ/L, and 40 °C inactivated E. coli K12 and Listeria innocua by 6.6 and 5.9 log CFU/mL.
  • Challenges: CW is highly perishable; HHP is not considered a validated process for eliminating Clostridium botulinum spores in low-acid products (pH > 4.6; CW pH 4.8–5.7); cold plasma alone gives only about 1–2 log CFU/mL reduction; ultrasound alone led to spoilage within one week, while combinations or additives extended shelf life.

Methods

  • Design: narrative review; no primary experimental work is reported.
  • Data/sample: published studies and USDA data on CW composition, biological activities, and processing, with 94 references.
  • Analysis: qualitative synthesis organized into nutritional composition, biological activities, and novel processing technologies, with Table 1 and Table 2 referenced.

Limitations

  • Paper-stated: comprehensive information on CW biological activities other than antioxidant activity is scarce; further research is needed on hurdle approaches for C. botulinum in HHP-treated CW and on ultrasound’s effects on quality attributes and microbial safety.
  • Evident from the text: no systematic search strategy, inclusion/exclusion criteria, or quantitative synthesis is reported; conclusions rely on cited primary studies, and some reported values vary widely (e.g., mineral ranges).

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/foods14091503

Cites

94 of 94 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

34 of 168 cited sources checked · 18 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Essential oil extracted from CW, primarily comprising esters (58.3%) and ketones (33.5%), has demonstrated notable free radical scavenging activity and antioxidant potential.

    “Moreover, the essential oil extracted from CW, primarily comprising esters (58.3%) and ketones (33.5%), has also demonstrated notable free radical scavenging activity and antioxidant potential [49].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Fonseca, 2009, Defining and Characterizing the Progression of Type 2 Diabetes, Diabetes Care source

      The section on mechanisms of β-cell failure discusses glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity, not CW essential oil. Searches for the oil’s reported ester and ketone percentages and for free-radical scavenging or antioxidant activity found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Caffeic acid identified in CW from the Malayan Green Dwarf variety contributes to its antioxidant activities.

    “Caffeic acid, identified in CW from the Malayan Green Dwarf variety, has been reported to contribute to its antioxidant activities [44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Luiz, 2013, Evaluation of Chemical Constituents and Antioxidant Activity of Coconut Water (Cocus nucifera L.) and Caffeic Acid in Cell Culture, An. Da Acad. Bras. De Ciencias source

      The Results and Discussion (page unavailable) identify caffeic acid in green dwarf coconut water and report antioxidant activity for caffeic acid tested separately. They suggest that total phenols may contribute to the water’s antioxidant activity, but do not establish caffeic acid’s individual contribution in the water or identify the tested variety as specifically Malayan Green Dwarf. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The anti-inflammatory effect of young CW was significantly greater than that of orally administered ibuprofen at a dose of 400 mg/70 kg.

    “Notably, the anti-inflammatory effect of young CW was significantly greater than that of orally administered ibuprofen at a dose of 400 mg/70 kg.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Rao, 2016, Coconut water of different maturity stages ameliorates inflammatory processes in model of inflammation, J. Intercult. Ethnopharmacol. source

      The Results (‘Effects after 2 h and 3 h’) report that young coconut water performed significantly better than ibuprofen at those time points, and the Experimental Protocol specifies oral ibuprofen at 400 mg/70 kg. The claim omits the time qualification: the Results report no statistically significant difference from ibuprofen at 1 or 4 hours in the rat paw-edema model. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Interpretationcitation

    The absence of C. botulinum growth and toxin production in untreated CW samples indicates the presence of naturally occurring inhibitory compounds in CW.

    “However, this absence of growth and toxin production was also noted in untreated samples, indicating the presence of naturally occurring inhibitory compounds in CW.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Raghubeer, E.V., Phan, B.N., Onuoha, E., Diggins, S., Aguilar, V., Swanson, S., and Lee, A. (2020). The use of High-Pressure Processing (HPP) to improve the safety and quality of raw coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 331. source

      The Abstract reports no C. botulinum growth or toxin production in CW samples whether or not they received HPP treatment. The Conclusions propose naturally occurring inhibitory compounds as a possible explanation, saying they “could” account for the inhibition and are “more likely” present; the paper does not establish their presence as the claim implies. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Interpretationcitation

    TCW could potentially be beneficial as a therapeutic agent in conditions where hepatic Nos2 expression is upregulated.

    “demonstrating that TCW could potentially be beneficial as a therapeutic agent in conditions where hepatic Nos2 expression is upregulated [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Lakshmanan, 2020, Tender coconut water suppresses hepatic inflammation by activating AKT and JNK signaling pathways in an in vitro model of sepsis, J. Funct. Foods source
  • May combine two claims. 58
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mature CW contains 0.2% reducing sugar, while TCW has a higher sugar content of 4.4%.

    “In comparison, mature CW contains 0.2% reducing sugar, while TCW has a higher sugar content of 4.4% [23].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Burns, 2020, Authenticity and the Potability of Coconut Water—A Critical Review, J. AOAC Int. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    At 4 to 5 months post-pollination, CW exhibits a sour and astringent taste profile; at 7-8 months, CW acquires a sweet flavor profile, accompanied by an increase in sugar content to approximately 5 to 6%.

    “During the initial stages, specifically 4 to 5 months post-pollination, CW exhibits a sour and astringent taste profile. At 7–8 months, CW acquires a sweet flavor profile, accompanied by an increase in sugar content to approximately 5 to 6% [21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Jayawardena, 2020, Progressive Freeze Concentration of Coconut Water and Use of Partial Ice Melting Method for Yield Improvement, Int. J. Food Sci. source

      The Introduction describes coconut water as containing 4% carbohydrates, and the Methods use mature coconut water, but neither passage gives months post-pollination or describes how taste changes with maturity. Searches for the stated ages, sour or astringent taste, sweetness, and 5–6% sugar found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW contains vitamin C, a key dietary antioxidant that supports immune function and aids in tissue repair.

    “In addition to these B vitamins, CW also contains vitamin C, a key dietary antioxidant that supports immune function and aids in tissue repair [24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Yong, 2009, The Chemical Composition and Biological Properties of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Water, Molecules source

      Section 2.3 (Vitamins; page not provided) states that coconut water contains vitamin C and calls it an important dietary antioxidant. The paper does not state that vitamin C supports immune function or aids tissue repair. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW contains higher levels of alanine, arginine, cysteine, and serine compared to milk, and these amino acids might be associated with the discoloration of CW.

    “Interestingly, CW contains higher levels of alanine, arginine, cysteine, and serine compared to milk, and these amino acids might be associated with the discoloration of CW [30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Prades, 2012, Coconut water uses, composition and properties: A review, Fruits source

      The composition passage states that alanine, arginine, cysteine and serine are higher in coconut water than in cow’s milk. It attributes coconut-water discoloration to enzymes, particularly polyphenoloxidase and peroxidase, rather than linking it to those amino acids. No page number is supplied for the passage. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW from the aromatic dwarf variety contains various phenolic compounds, including catechin and phenolic acids such as syringic acid, salicylic acid, m-coumaric acid, p-coumaric acid, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid, which serve as significant sources of antioxidants.

    “The aromatic dwarf variety of CW has been reported to contain various phenolic compounds. Key bioactive constituents include catechin and several phenolic acids, such as syringic acid, salicylic acid, m-coumaric acid, p-coumaric acid, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid, which serve as significant sources of antioxidants in the prevention of diseases [43].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] Mahayothee, 2016, Phenolic Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Medium Chain Fatty Acids Profiles of Coconut Water and Meat at Different Maturity Stages, Int. J. Food Prop. source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mineral and nutrient compositions of CW can vary depending on regional factors.

    “Furthermore, the mineral and nutrient compositions of CW can vary depending on regional factors [21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Jayawardena, 2020, Progressive Freeze Concentration of Coconut Water and Use of Partial Ice Melting Method for Yield Improvement, Int. J. Food Sci. source

      The Introduction lists minerals and nutrients in coconut water, and Methods §2.5 identifies the Sri Lankan source of the sample. Neither passage says that mineral or nutrient composition varies by region; searches for regional factors, geographic origin, and composition variation found no such statement in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.77)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kinetin and zeatin are used in cosmetic products due to their antioxidant and anti-aging properties.

    “A previous study showed that kinetin and zeatin are used in cosmetic products due to their antioxidant and anti-aging properties [24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Yong, 2009, The Chemical Composition and Biological Properties of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Water, Molecules source

      Section 2.1 (Phytohormones; page unavailable) says that kinetin is an antioxidant and that skin-care products containing it were developed following studies of its anti-ageing effects. It also reports anti-ageing effects for trans-zeatin, but does not say that zeatin is an antioxidant or is used in cosmetic products. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    These vitamins play crucial roles in energy production, metabolism, and maintaining overall health.

    “These vitamins play crucial roles in energy production, metabolism, and maintaining overall health [24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Yong, 2009, The Chemical Composition and Biological Properties of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Water, Molecules source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HHP was effective in eliminating inoculated strains of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes to <1 CFU/mL and producing a microbiologically stable (<2 log) product during storage at 4 °C for 120 days without off odors and while maintaining a taste similar to fresh CW.

    “Despite this observation, HHP was demonstrated to be effective in eliminating inoculated strains of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes to <1 CFU/mL and producing a microbiologically stable (<2 log) product during storage at 4 °C for 120 days without the development of off odors and while maintaining a taste similar to fresh CW.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Raghubeer, E.V., Phan, B.N., Onuoha, E., Diggins, S., Aguilar, V., Swanson, S., and Lee, A. (2020). The use of High-Pressure Processing (HPP) to improve the safety and quality of raw coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 331. source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a rat paw edema model, young CW at 4 mL/100 g orally produced a maximum percentage inhibition of 42.52%, while mature CW produced 25.94%.

    “The results revealed that the maximum percentage inhibition observed was 42.52% for young CW and 25.94% for mature CW, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Rao, 2016, Coconut water of different maturity stages ameliorates inflammatory processes in model of inflammation, J. Intercult. Ethnopharmacol. source

      The Methodology (Experimental Protocol; page unavailable) confirms that both coconut waters were given orally at 4 mL/100 g in a rat paw-edema model. The Discussion (page unavailable) says percent inhibition peaked for young coconut water in the third hour and for mature coconut water in the second hour. The available Results text does not give the claimed maxima of 42.52% and 25.94%, so those figures cannot be verified from our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Optimized HPCD treatment at 12 MPa and 40 °C for 30 min achieved a 5-log (CFU/mL) reduction in mesophilic microorganisms, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and molds, and a 7-log (CFU/mL) reduction in total coliforms.

    “The optimized HPCD treatment, conducted at 12 MPa and 40 °C for 30 min, proved effective in achieving a 5-log (CFU/mL) reduction in mesophilic microorganisms, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and molds, as well as a 7-log (CFU/mL) reduction in total coliforms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] Cappelletti, 2015, High Pressure Carbon Dioxide pasteurization of coconut water: A sport drink with high nutritional and sensory quality, J. Food Eng. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Neither fresh nor pasteurized TCW exhibited antibacterial activity against Streptococcus mutans, whereas chlorhexidine demonstrated effective S. mutans inactivation.

    “However, neither fresh nor pasteurized TCW exhibited antibacterial activity, whereas chlorhexidine, used as a positive control, demonstrated effective S. mutans inactivation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Rukmini, 2017, Antibacterial efficacy of tender coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) on Streptococcus mutans: An in-vitro study, J. Int. Soc. Prev. Community Dent. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Young coconut juice has significant wound-healing potential and therapeutic value for cutaneous repair.

    “These findings demonstrated the significant wound-healing potential of young coconut juice, suggesting its therapeutic value for cutaneous repair [42].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Radenahmad, 2012, Young coconut juice can accelerate the healing process of cutaneous wounds, BMC Complement. Altern. Med. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oral administration of young coconut juice to ovariectomized rats can accelerate wound healing, associated with significantly higher density of immunostaining for ER-α and ER-β in keratinocytes, fibroblasts, white blood cells, fat cells, sebaceous gland, skeletal muscles, and hair shafts and follicles.

    “Previous studies have reported that the oral administration of young coconut juice to ovariectomized rats can accelerate wound healing, which is associated with a significantly higher density of immunostaining for ER-α an ER-β in keratinocytes, fibroblasts, white blood cells, fat cells, sebaceous gland, skeletal muscles, and hair shafts and follicles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Radenahmad, 2012, Young coconut juice can accelerate the healing process of cutaneous wounds, BMC Complement. Altern. Med. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HPCD caused a decrease in pH and volatile fractions of CW but retained nutritional and volatile compounds and sensory attributes significantly better than thermal treatment at 90 °C for 1 min.

    “Moreover, despite HPCD causing a decrease in pH and volatile fractions of CW, it retained nutritional and volatile compounds, as well as sensory attributes, significantly better than thermal treatment at 90 °C for 1 min.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] Cappelletti, 2015, High Pressure Carbon Dioxide pasteurization of coconut water: A sport drink with high nutritional and sensory quality, J. Food Eng. source

      Section 3.3.1 reports lower pH after HPCD and less vitamin loss than after heat pasteurization; Section 3.3.3 reports that HPCD-treated coconut water was sensorially closer to fresh water than the heat-pasteurized product. But the volatile-compound results say HPCD depleted most headspace volatiles, while heat pasteurization increased several groups. The paper therefore does not support the claim that HPCD retained volatile compounds significantly better than treatment at 90 °C for 1 minute. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A recent anti-urolithiatic study involving male Wistar rats proved that CW prevented the adherence of crystals on renal tissues and reduced the number of crystals formed in the urine.

    “A recent anti-urolithiatic study involving male Wistar rats proved that CW prevented the adherence of crystals on renal tissues and reduced the number of crystals formed in the urine [38].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Gandhi, 2013, Prophylactic effect of coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) on ethylene glycol induced nephrocalcinosis in male wistar rat, Int. Braz. J. Urol. source

      The Results report markedly fewer urinary crystals and no crystalline deposits in renal tissue among coconut-water-treated male Wistar rats. The paper did not test crystal adherence as a mechanism, and its discussion acknowledges limitations and describes the findings as suggesting a beneficial effect; “proved” overstates that conclusion. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW increases the urinary excretion of potassium chloride and citrate in humans, thus lowering the likelihood of stones.

    “Other research suggests that CW increases the urinary excretion of potassium chloride, and citrate in humans, thus lowering the likelihood of stones [39].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] Patel, 2018, Coconut Water: An Unexpected Source of Urinary Citrate, BioMed Res. Int. source

      The Discussion (page not provided) reports that coconut water increased urinary citrate, potassium, and chloride in people without a history of stones. It describes citrate as an inhibitor of calcium stone formation, but did not test whether coconut water lowered the likelihood of stones; its effect in stone-forming patients remains untested. The paper reports potassium and chloride separately in urine, not urinary excretion of potassium chloride as a compound. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ultrasound possesses advantages including eco-friendliness, cost-effectiveness, and non-destructiveness.

    “Ultrasound possesses numerous advantages, including its eco-friendliness, cost-effectiveness, and non-destructiveness, and has been applied in various food processing techniques, such as filtration, freezing and crystallization, drying, sterilization/pasteurization, and extraction [92].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [92] Bhargava, 2021, Advances in application of ultrasound in food processing: A review, Ultrason. Sonochem. source

      The Advantages and disadvantages section describes ultrasound as eco-friendly and says rapid processing can lower costs. The Introduction calls low-intensity ultrasound non-destructive for food analysis, but distinguishes it from high-intensity ultrasound used in processing, which it describes as disruptive. Non-destructiveness is therefore not supported as a general advantage across the processing applications listed in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ultrasound has been applied in various food processing techniques, such as filtration, freezing and crystallization, drying, sterilization/pasteurization, and extraction.

    “Ultrasound possesses numerous advantages, including its eco-friendliness, cost-effectiveness, and non-destructiveness, and has been applied in various food processing techniques, such as filtration, freezing and crystallization, drying, sterilization/pasteurization, and extraction [92].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [92] Bhargava, 2021, Advances in application of ultrasound in food processing: A review, Ultrason. Sonochem. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TCW obtained from immature coconuts aged between 5 and 7 months exhibits TSS ranging from 3.8 to 6.9 °Bx, with total sugar content varying from 2.08 to 6.52%.

    “TCW, obtained from immature coconuts aged between 5 and 7 months, exhibits TSS ranging from 3.8 to 6.9 °Bx, with a total sugar content varying from 2.08 to 6.52% [20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Divya, 2022, A concise review on oil extraction methods, nutritional and therapeutic role of coconut products, J. Food Sci. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW from young Malayan Yellow Dwarf exhibited antioxidant and anti-aging effects, with its rich bioactive composition holding promise as a natural functional ingredient for anti-aging skincare.

    “CW from young Malayan Yellow Dwarf exhibited antioxidant and anti-aging effects, with its rich bioactive composition holding promise as a natural functional ingredient for anti-aging skincare, underscoring its cosmetic industry potential [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Halim, H.H., Pak Dek, M.S., Hamid, A.A., Saari, N., Mohd Lazim, M.I., Abas, F., Ngalim, A., Ismail, A., and Jaafar, A.H. (2023). Novel sources of bioactive compounds in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water from different maturity levels and varieties as potent skin anti-aging strategies and anti-fatigue agents. Food Biosci., 51. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW can inhibit the browning of 'Gala' apple wedges during storage at 4 ± 1 °C for 9 days, suggesting its promising application as a natural anti-browning agent in fresh-cut products.

    “Interestingly, a recent study also showed that CW could inhibit the browning of ‘Gala’ apple wedges during storage at 4 ± 1 °C for 9 days, suggesting its promising application as a natural anti-browning agent in fresh-cut products [50].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Supapvanich, 2020, Browning inhibition on fresh-cut apple by the immersion of liquid endosperm from mature coconuts, J. Food Sci. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    L-arginine supports growth hormone secretion, aids muscle protein synthesis, and has been found to transform pancreatic cells into insulin-producing cells, potentially reversing diabetes-related effects.

    “Furthermore, L-arginine supports growth hormone secretion, aids muscle protein synthesis, and has been found to transform pancreatic cells into insulin-producing cells, potentially reversing diabetes-related effects [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Preetha, 2013, Effects of coconut water on carbohydrate metabolism and pancreatic pathology of alloxan induced diabetic rats, Eur. J. Integr. Med. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A 100 mL serving of TCW typically consists of 95% water and mineral concentrations of K (290 mg), Fe (106 mg), Ca (44 mg), Na (42 mg), and Cu (26 mg).

    “A 100 mL serving of TCW typically consists of 95% water and notable mineral concentrations, such as K (290 mg), Fe (106 mg), Ca (44 mg), Na (42 mg), and copper (Cu, 26 mg) [22].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] Reddy, 2024, High-pressure processing for inactivation of enzymes, microbes, and its effect on nutritional composition of tender coconut water, J. Food Process Eng. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The content of phenolic compounds in CW increases with maturity, enhancing its antioxidant properties and nutritional value.

    “Additionally, the content of phenolic compounds in CW increases with maturity, enhancing its antioxidant properties and nutritional value [27].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Appaiah, 2015, Physico-chemical characteristics and stability aspects of coconut water and kernel at different stages of maturity, J. Food Sci. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities of CW are comparable to or even higher than those of ascorbic acid, while its anti-collagenase activity surpasses that of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG).

    “Furthermore, the DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities of CW were found to be comparable to or even higher than those of ascorbic acid, while its anti-collagenase activity surpassed that of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Halim, H.H., Pak Dek, M.S., Hamid, A.A., Saari, N., Mohd Lazim, M.I., Abas, F., Ngalim, A., Ismail, A., and Jaafar, A.H. (2023). Novel sources of bioactive compounds in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water from different maturity levels and varieties as potent skin anti-aging strategies and anti-fatigue agents. Food Biosci., 51. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Arginine plays a significant role in producing nitric oxide, which enhances blood flow, promotes vasodilation, and boosts endurance.

    “Among these, arginine plays a significant role in producing nitric oxide, which enhances blood flow, promotes vasodilation, and boosts endurance [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Halim, H.H., Pak Dek, M.S., Hamid, A.A., Saari, N., Mohd Lazim, M.I., Abas, F., Ngalim, A., Ismail, A., and Jaafar, A.H. (2023). Novel sources of bioactive compounds in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water from different maturity levels and varieties as potent skin anti-aging strategies and anti-fatigue agents. Food Biosci., 51. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW contains phytohormones, particularly cytokinin, as well as other compounds like lipids, nitrogenous compounds, and enzymes.

    “In addition to sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, and sucrose), minerals, vitamins, phenolic acids, and amino acids, CW also contains certain amounts of phytohormones, particularly cytokinin, as well as other compounds like lipids, nitrogenous compounds, and enzymes [29].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Manna, 2014, Protective effect of coconut water concentrate and its active component shikimic acid against hydroperoxide mediated oxidative stress through suppression of NF-κB and activation of Nrf2 pathway, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW contains volatile aromatic compounds, including esters, alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, and ketone, with ester compounds contributing the most to its aroma profile.

    “Furthermore, CW has been found to contain a variety of volatile aromatic compounds, including esters, alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, and ketone, with ester compounds contributing the most to its aroma profile [25].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Zhang, 2023, Discrimination and characterization of different coconut water (CW) by their phenolic composition and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using LC-MS/MS, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and HS-GC-IMS, J. Food Sci. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Green CW exhibits stronger free radical scavenging activity, higher antioxidant and anti-aging activities, and a richer profile of bioactive compounds compared to mature CW.

    “Interestingly, green CW exhibits a stronger free radical scavenging activity, higher antioxidant and anti-aging activities, and a richer profile of bioactive compounds compared to mature CW [28,46].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [28] Halim, H.H., Pak Dek, M.S., Hamid, A.A., Saari, N., Mohd Lazim, M.I., Abas, F., Ngalim, A., Ismail, A., and Jaafar, A.H. (2023). Novel sources of bioactive compounds in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water from different maturity levels and varieties as potent skin anti-aging strategies and anti-fatigue agents. Food Biosci., 51. source
    • cites [46] 2020, Microwave heating effect on total phenolics and antioxidant activity of green and mature coconut water, Int. J. Food Eng. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Catechin extracted from CW showed antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-cancer effects.

    “The catechin extracted from CW showed antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-cancer effects [45].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] Manoharan, 2020, Facile synthesis and characterisation of green luminescent carbon nanodots prepared from tender coconut water using the acid-assisted ultrasonic route, Micro Nano Lett. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CW contains nine essential amino acids, with tryptophan being the most abundant.

    “Yannam et al. found that CW contains nine essential amino acids, with tryptophan being the most abundant [18].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Yannam, 2020, Effect of UV-C irradiation on the inactivation kinetics of oxidative enzymes, essential amino acids and sensory properties of coconut water, J. Food Sci. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Primary minerals present in CW include K, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Fe, with K being the most prevalent.

    “The primary minerals present in CW include K, sodium (Na), Ca, Mg, zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe), with K being the most prevalent among them [10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Kumar, 2021, Nutritional and metabolomics characterization of the coconut water at different nut developmental stages, J. Food Compos. Anal. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TCW contains about 95.5% water, 0.1% fat, 4% carbohydrate, 0.02% calcium, 0.01% phosphorus, 0.5% iron, and some amino acids, vitamin B complex, vitamin C, and mineral salts.

    “It contains about 95.5% water, 0.1% fat, 4% carbohydrate, 0.02% calcium, 0.01% phosphorus, 0.5% iron, and some amino acids, vitamin B complex, vitamin C, and mineral salts [9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Lamdande, 2020, Flux evaluation based on fouling mechanism in acoustic field-assisted ultrafiltration for cold sterilization of tender coconut water, Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Due to its relatively high sugar content, TCW is prone to microbial contamination, necessitating processing methods to eliminate pathogens and prolong shelf life.

    “Due to its relatively high sugar content, TCW is prone to microbial contamination, necessitating processing methods to eliminate pathogens and prolong shelf life [22].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] Reddy, 2024, High-pressure processing for inactivation of enzymes, microbes, and its effect on nutritional composition of tender coconut water, J. Food Process Eng. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The richness of macro- and micro-nutrients in TCW is reported to have hypolipidemic, cardioprotective, and hepatoprotective effects.

    “The richness of macro- and micro-nutrients in TCW is reported to have hypolipidemic, cardioprotective, and hepatoprotective effects [51].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Sandhya, 2008, Comparative evaluation of the hypolipidemic effects of coconut water and lovastatin in rats fed fat–cholesterol enriched diet, Food Chem. Toxicol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increasing concentrations of CW and fermented CW could decrease the number and size of struvite crystals that grew in a gel medium, indicating antioxidant property and a marginal inhibitory effect during in vitro struvite crystallization, but anti-uropathogenic effects of CW were not found; fermented CW showed potential antioxidant, anti-uropathogenic, and anti-struvite urolithiatic properties.

    “In addition, it was reported that increasing concentrations of CW and fermented CW could decrease the number and size of struvite crystals that grew in a gel medium, indicating the antioxidant property and a marginal inhibitory effect during in vitro struvite crystallization, but anti-uropathogenic effects of CW were not found; meanwhile, fermented CW showed potential antioxidant, anti-uropatho”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] Ct, D.R., Palaninathan, V., and James, R.A. (2023). Anti-uropathogenic, antioxidant and struvite crystallization inhibitory potential of fresh and fermented coconut water. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol., 47. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TCW is a rich source of cardioprotective factors, including L-arginine, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and vitamin C, which are known to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.

    “Recent studies with TCW indicated that it is a rich source of cardioprotective factors viz. L-arginine [52], magnesium, potassium, calcium, and vitamin C, which are known to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Schulman, 2006, L-Arginine Therapy in Acute Myocardial InfarctionThe Vascular Interaction with Age in Myocardial Infarction (VINTAGE MI) Randomized Clinical Trial, JAMA source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Conventional thermal processing methods can lead to inactivation of heat-sensitive nutrients, degradation of volatile flavor compounds, and formation of undesirable chemical derivatives, which can make CW less appealing to consumers.

    “Nevertheless, these methods can lead to the inactivation of heat-sensitive nutrients, degradation of volatile flavor compounds, and formation of undesirable chemical derivatives, which can make the CW less appealing to consumers [57,58].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [57] Naik, 2022, Tender Coconut Water: A Review on Recent Advances in Processing and Preservation, Food Rev. Int. source
    • cites [58] Cunha, 2020, Chemical composition of thermally processed coconut water evaluated by GC–MS, UPLC-HRMS, and NMR, Food Chem. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compared to streptokinase, TCW demonstrated superior antioxidant activity and comparable antithrombotic efficacy.

    “When compared to streptokinase, one of the most effective thrombolytic drugs, TCW demonstrated a superior antioxidant activity and comparable antithrombotic efficacy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Prathapan, 2010, Antioxidant and Antithrombotic Activity of Tender Coconut Water in Experimental Myocardial Infarction, J. Food Biochem. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Concentrated CW and its active constituent shikimic acid mitigated oxidative damage induced by H2O2 in freshly isolated murine hepatocytes, mediated through NF-κB inhibition, PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 activation, and SAPK/JNK/Bax modulation.

    “Furthermore, concentrated CW and its active constituent, shikimic acid, mitigated the oxidative damage induced by H2O2 in freshly isolated murine hepatocytes. This cytoprotection was mediated through coordinated regulation of three critical pathways: NF-κB inhibition (anti-inflammatory), PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 activation (antioxidant), and SAPK/JNK/Bax modulation (anti-apoptotic) [29].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Manna, 2014, Protective effect of coconut water concentrate and its active component shikimic acid against hydroperoxide mediated oxidative stress through suppression of NF-κB and activation of Nrf2 pathway, J. Ethnopharmacol. source

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    After four weeks of daily orogastric administration of CW (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mL), CW exhibited inhibitory effects on the growth of all tested bacteria (Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella flexneri, Serratia marscense, and Morganella morganii) isolated from the ileum of rats, with zones of inhibition ranging from 7.50 ± 0.50 mm to 23.00

    “After four weeks of daily orogastric administration of various volumes of CW (0.5 mL, 1.0 mL, 1.5 mL, and 2.0 mL, respectively), it was observed that the CW exhibited inhibitory effects on the growth of all tested bacteria (Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella flexneri, Serratia marscense, and Morganella morganii) isolated from the ileum of”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Adebolu, 2020, Effects of Coconut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) Water and Oil on the Ileal Bacterial Flora of Apparently Healthy Wistar Albino Rats, J. Adv. Microbiol.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    After HHP treatment at 550 MPa and 10 °C for 3 min, the total counts of inoculated non-toxigenic C. botulinum spores in CW were not significantly reduced and remained constant during 61 days of storage at 4 °C, regardless of initial dissolved oxygen content.

    “After HHP treatment at 550 MPa and 10 °C for 3 min, the total counts of inoculated non-toxigenic C. botulinum spores in CW were not significantly reduced and remained constant during the 61 days of storage at 4 °C, regardless of the initial dissolved oxygen content [59].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] Clauwers, 2020, Evaluation of factors influencing the growth of non-toxigenic Clostridium botulinum type E and Clostridium sp. in high-pressure processed and conditioned tender coconut water from Thailand, Food Res. Int. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oral MCW treatment (4 mL/100 g/day, 45 days) significantly lowered blood glucose and HbA1c levels in diabetic rats while displaying dual antidiabetic and antithrombotic effects, likely via the L-arginine-NO pathway.

    “Similarly, oral MCW treatment (4 mL/100 g/day, 45 days) significantly lowered both blood glucose and HbA1c levels in diabetic rats while displaying dual antidiabetic and antithrombotic effects, likely via the L-arginine-NO pathway [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Preetha, 2015, Mature coconut water exhibits antidiabetic and antithrombotic potential via L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway in alloxan induced diabetic rats, J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oral administration of mature CW in diabetic rats significantly reduced blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin levels and improved plasma insulin levels, exerting antihyperglycemic potential.

    “Oral administration of mature CW in diabetic rats showed a significant reduction in blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin levels, with an improvement in plasma insulin levels, which exerted significant antihyperglycemic potential and could be developed as a potent drug candidate or nutraceutical for the management of diabetes and associated complications [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Preetha, 2013, Effects of coconut water on carbohydrate metabolism and pancreatic pathology of alloxan induced diabetic rats, Eur. J. Integr. Med. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Young CW has potential for a potent anti-inflammatory effect and mature CW for a moderate anti-inflammatory effect.

    “These findings strongly indicate the potential use of young CW for a potent anti-inflammatory effect and mature CW for a moderate anti-inflammatory effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TCW treatment could restore excess generation of oxygen radicals following suppression of antioxidant capacity and augmentation of lipid peroxidation in murine testicles, and mitigated heat stress-induced inflammation via Nrf2 pathway activation, ameliorating testicular damage.

    “The results indicated that TCW treatment could restore excess generation of oxygen radicals following the suppression of antioxidant capacity and augmentation of lipid peroxidation in murine testicles. The intervention also mitigated HS-induced inflammation via Nrf2 pathway activation, subsequently ameliorating testicular damage [41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Kumar, 2018, Tender coconut water attenuates heat stress-induced testicular damage through modulation of the NF-κB and Nrf2 pathways, Food Funct. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chronic oral administration of TCW (4 mL/100 g/day for 30 days) and acute intravenous treatment with lyophilized TCW (250 mg/100 g, single dose) significantly attenuated isoproterenol-induced oxidative stress and demonstrated notable antithrombotic effects.

    “Furthermore, both chronic oral administration of TCW (4 mL/100 g/day for 30 days) and acute intravenous treatment with lyophilized TCW (250 mg/100 g, single dose) significantly attenuated isoproterenol-induced oxidative stress and demonstrated notable antithrombotic effects [36].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Prathapan, 2010, Antioxidant and Antithrombotic Activity of Tender Coconut Water in Experimental Myocardial Infarction, J. Food Biochem. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Storage of HHP-treated CW at 10 and 20 °C showed no growth of C. botulinum, but there was a significant increase in total aerobic counts within 10 and 4 days, respectively, suggesting limited capacity of HHP to inactivate all spoilage microorganisms.

    “Storage of HHP-treated CW at 10 and 20 °C also showed no growth of C. botulinum, but there was a significant increase in total aerobic counts within 10 and 4 days, respectively, suggesting the limited capacity of HHP to inactivate all spoilage microorganisms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] Clauwers, 2020, Evaluation of factors influencing the growth of non-toxigenic Clostridium botulinum type E and Clostridium sp. in high-pressure processed and conditioned tender coconut water from Thailand, Food Res. Int. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HPCD treatment reduced short- and medium-chain alcohols, whereas thermal treatment led to an increase in oxidated compounds such as aldehydes and 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, characterized by low odor thresholds with aromas of "cooked rice" and "popcorn".

    “A detailed analysis of the volatile compound composition revealed that HPCD treatment reduced short- and medium-chain alcohols. In contrast, thermal treatment led to an increase in oxidated compounds, such as aldehydes and 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, characterized by low odor thresholds with aromas of “cooked rice” and “popcorn” [62].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Aprea, 2015, Effects of Pasteurization on Volatile Compounds and Sensory Properties of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Water: Thermal vs. High-Pressure Carbon Dioxide Pasteurization, Food Bioprocess Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HHP processing has been proven effective in reducing microbial counts with minimal effects on quality attributes and is commercially applied to various food products.

    “It has been proven effective in reducing microbial counts with minimal effects on quality attributes and is now commercially applied to various food products, such as juices and beverages, meat products, and fruit and vegetable preparations [84,85].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [84] Yang, 2021, High pressure processing combined with selected hurdles: Enhancement in the inactivation of vegetative microorganisms, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source
    • cites [85] Aganovic, 2021, Aspects of high hydrostatic pressure food processing: Perspectives on technology and food safety, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Male Sprague-Dawley rats fed a fructose-rich diet and treated with TCW (4 mL/100 g body weight) for 3 weeks showed significantly lowered systolic blood pressure, serum triglycerides, and free fatty acids, and significantly reduced plasma glucose, insulin, and lipid peroxidation markers MDA, hydroperoxides, and conjugated dienes.

    “Male Sprague–Dawley rats fed with a fructose-rich diet and treated with TCW (4 mL/100 g of body weight) for 3 subsequent weeks showed a significantly lowered systolic blood pressure, serum triglycerides, and free fatty acids. Plasma glucose and insulin levels and lipid peroxidation markers such as MDA, hydroperoxides, and conjugated dienes were also significantly reduced [11].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Bhagya, 2012, Therapeutic effects of tender coconut water on oxidative stress in fructose fed insulin resistant hypertensive rats, Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    UV light spans the electromagnetic spectrum from 100 to 400 nm.

    “Ultraviolet (UV) light, which spans the electromagnetic spectrum from 100 and 400 nm, has been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an alternative technology for pasteurizing fruits and vegetable juices [75].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [75] Gautam, 2017, Nonthermal pasteurization of tender coconut water using a continuous flow coiled UV reactor, LWT—Food Sci. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Processing CW with cold plasma generated in air did not affect pH but reduced TTA, whereas CP generated in M65 (65% O2, 30% CO2, 5% N2) lowered pH without affecting TTA.

    “Mahnot, Mahanta, Farkas, Keener, and Misra [67] demonstrated that processing CW with cold plasma generated in air did not affect the pH but reduced the TTA, whereas CP generated in M65 (65% O2, 30% CO2, 5%N2) lowered the pH without affecting the TTA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [67] Mahnot, 2019, Atmospheric cold plasma inactivation of Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes in tender coconut water: Inoculation and accelerated shelf-life studies, Food Control. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With the addition of 400 ppm citric acid to CW prior to CP treatment, a minimum reduction of 5 log (CFU/mL) in inoculated E. coli, L. monocytogenes, and Salmonella, as well as a shelf life of 48 days at 5 °C, was achieved.

    “A minimum reduction of 5 log (CFU/mL) in inoculated E. coli, L. monocytogenes, and Salmonella, as well as a shelf life of 48 days at 5 °C, was achieved with the addition of 400 ppm of citric acid to CW prior to CP treatment [66,67].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [66] Mahnot, 2019, Strategy to achieve a 5-log Salmonella inactivation in tender coconut water using high voltage atmospheric cold plasma (HVACP), Food Chem. source
    • cites [67] Mahnot, 2019, Atmospheric cold plasma inactivation of Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes in tender coconut water: Inoculation and accelerated shelf-life studies, Food Control. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PEF combined with mild heat treatment at optimal conditions (22.5 kV/cm, 119 kJ/L, and 40 °C) inactivated E. coli K12 and Listeria innocua counts by 6.6 and 5.9 log (CFU/mL), respectively, and extended shelf life to over 35 days at around 8 °C, comparable to thermal pasteurization at 85 °C for 10 min.

    “The optimal PEF conditions, at 22.5 kV/cm, 119 kJ/L, and 40 °C, were found to inactivate the counts of E. coli K12 and Listeria innocua counts by 6.6 and 5.9 log (CFU/mL), respectively, and extend the shelf life to over 35 days at around 8 °C, comparable to thermal pasteurization at 85 °C for 10 min.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Tongdonyod, 2023, Optimization of pulsed electric fields combined with mild heat treatment on microbial inactivation of tender coconut water and evaluation of quality attributes during storage, Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PEF treatment increased the PPO activity of CW by 17%, while the POD activity decreased by 78%.

    “However, PEF treatment increased the PPO activity of CW by 17%, while the POD activity decreased by 78%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Tongdonyod, 2023, Optimization of pulsed electric fields combined with mild heat treatment on microbial inactivation of tender coconut water and evaluation of quality attributes during storage, Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CP processing achieved an inactivation rate of above 70% for POD in CW, with effectiveness influenced by processing parameters such as frequency, voltage, and treatment time.

    “CP processing has also been demonstrated to achieve an inactivation rate of above 70% for POD in CW, with the effectiveness being influenced by processing parameters, such as frequency, voltage, and treatment time [64,65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [64] Chutia, 2021, Influence of cold plasma voltage and time on quality attributes of tender coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) and degradation kinetics of its blended beverage, J. Food Process. Preserv. source
    • cites [65] Porto, 2020, Ozone and plasma processing effect on green coconut water, Food Res. Int. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increasing CP treatment time to 2 min significantly reduced the total phenolic content of CW, with a more pronounced decrease at higher voltages.

    “For instance, Chutia and Mahanta [64] observed a significant reduction in the total phenolic content of CW when the CP treatment time was increased to 2 min, with a more pronounced decrease at higher voltages.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] Chutia, 2021, Influence of cold plasma voltage and time on quality attributes of tender coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) and degradation kinetics of its blended beverage, J. Food Process. Preserv. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compared to PPO, POD has stronger resistance to CP; when aiming for half of the maximum activity value, the processing time required for PPO is always shorter than that for POD at 18 kV, 23 kV, and 28 kV.

    “Moreover, it was found that compared to PPO, POD has stronger resistance to CP; when aiming for half of the maximum activity value, the processing time required for PPO is always shorter than that for POD, at 18 kV, 23 kV, and 28 kV [68].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68] Chutia, 2019, Kinetics of inactivation of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase in tender coconut water by dielectric barrier discharge plasma, LWT source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Microfiltration (MF) ideally only rejects suspended solids while allowing proteins to pass freely through the membrane.

    “Microfiltration (MF) is a process that ideally only rejects suspended solids while allowing proteins to pass freely through the membrane [94].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [94] 2017, Recent developments in microfiltration and ultrafiltration of fruit juices, Food Bioprod. Process. source

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    MF with citric acid (200 mg/L), ascorbic acid (180 mg/L), and L-cysteine (90 mg/L) in glass bottles kept CW sterile for 180 days.

    “The results showed that both package methods could store CW at 4 °C for 46 days with acceptable sensory results, while CW remained sterile for 180 days in glass bottles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Mahnot, 2014, Effect of additives on the quality of tender coconut water processed by nonthermal two stage microfiltration technique, LWT—Food Sci. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ultrasound operates by inducing acoustic cavitation, which releases a significant amount of energy.

    “It operates by inducing acoustic cavitation, which occurs when larger bubbles are generated, undergo expansion, and subsequently undergo rapid collapse, resulting in the release of a significant amount of energy [88].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [88] Bigi, 2023, Non-thermal techniques and the “hurdle” approach: How is food technology evolving?, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    CW has emerged as a popular functional beverage due to its rich nutritional profile (sugars, minerals, vitamins) and diverse biological activities (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, cardioprotective, antimicrobial).

    “CW has emerged as a popular functional beverage due to its rich nutritional profile, such as sugars, minerals, and vitamins, as well as its diverse biological activities, including antioxidant anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, cardioprotective, and antimicrobial effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ozone has high oxidizing power and can effectively inactivate a wide range of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, algae, and fungi.

    “Ozone is a triatomic allotrope of oxygen known for its high oxidizing power, which can effectively inactivate a wide range of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, algae, and fungi [65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] Porto, 2020, Ozone and plasma processing effect on green coconut water, Food Res. Int. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ozone has been approved by the FDA as an antimicrobial agent for direct application to food since 2001.

    “Due to its ability to spontaneously decompose into oxygen without leaving hazardous residues on foods, ozone is considered a GRAS chemical. It has been approved by the FDA as an antimicrobial agent for direct application to food since 2001 [88].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [88] Bigi, 2023, Non-thermal techniques and the “hurdle” approach: How is food technology evolving?, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    POD has higher resistance to both ultrasound and thermal treatments.

    “POD has higher resistance to both ultrasound and thermal treatments, with its activity decreasing by 27 and 50% after ultrasound treatments at 286 W/L and 20 kHz for 30 min and thermal treatments at 80 °C for >30 min, respectively [78].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [78] Rojas, 2017, Using ultrasound technology for the inactivation and thermal sensitization of peroxidase in green coconut water, Ultrasonics Sonochem. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The operational principle of MF relies on physical size exclusion, where the membrane's pore structure acts as a selective barrier based on particle dimensions.

    “The operational principle of MF relies on physical size exclusion, where the membrane’s pore structure acts as a selective barrier based on particle dimensions [8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Prithviraj, 2021, Emerging non-thermal processing techniques for preservation of tender coconut water, LWT source
68 of 68

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    No recent reviews have systematically summarized the diverse aspects of coconut water.

    “To the best of our knowledge, no recent reviews have systematically summarized the diverse aspects of coconut water (CW).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Coconut is a vital agricultural commodity in tropical regions, contributing significantly to global trade and economic growth.

    “Coconut is a vital agricultural commodity in tropical regions, contributing significantly to global trade and economic growth.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In some areas, utilization of coconut resources remains underdeveloped, with mature CW often discarded, leading to environmental pollution, resource wastage, and challenges for sustainable industry growth.

    “However, in some areas, the utilization of coconut resources remains underdeveloped, with mature CW often discarded, leading to environmental pollution, resource wastage, and challenges for sustainable industry growth.”
3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Reported water and sugar percentages exceed the whole sample

    Minor

    The stated minimum sugar percentages total 9.5%. Together with approximately 95% water, they account for at least 104.5% of the same typical TCW sample.

  • Mineral content is said to both decrease and increase with maturation

    Minor

    The introduction says mineral content decreases as the coconut matures, whereas the minerals section says it increases after eight months.

  • Coconut water is described as fat-free despite a reported fat content

    Minor

    TCW is a type of coconut water, yet the paper reports 0.1% fat in TCW and later describes CW as free from fat.

  • Two different shares of fruit weight are assigned to coconut water

    Minor

    The adjacent statements assign water 9.8% of a mature fruit's weight but then say coconut water constitutes approximately 25% of the fruit's total weight. No different maturity stage is specified for the second figure.

4 of 4

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Related

Authors
Shi, S., Wang, W., Wang, F., Yang, P., Yang, H., He, X., & Liao, X.
Affiliations
  • China Agricultural University (CN)
  • Institute of Food Science and Technology (CN)
  • Hunan Agricultural University (CN)
Corresponding author
Liao, Xiaojun
ORCID
Venue
Foods
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2025-04-25
Volume
14
Issue
9
Pages
1503
ISSN
2304-8158 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/foods14091503
PMC
PMC12072132
OpenAlex
W4409806547
Cited by
12
References
94
Citations by year
2026: 9 · 2025: 3
FWCI
2.59
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Foods (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
2115 Talent Development Program of China Agricultural University
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Inorganic Chemistry › Coconut Research and Applications
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Food Science and Nutritional Studies
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food and Agricultural Sciences
Keywords
coconut water, nutritional composition, biological activity, antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anticancer activity, cardioprotective activity, antimicrobial activity, functional beverages, shelf life extension, food preservation, processing technology, beverage formulation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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