Effect of Various Exercise Regimens on Selected Exercise-Induced Cytokines in Healthy People
Open accessAbstract
Different forms of physical activity—endurance, resistance or dynamic power—stimulate cytokine release from various tissues to the bloodstream. Receptors for exercise-induced cytokines are present in muscle tissue, adipose tissue, liver, brain, bones, cardiovascular system, immune system, pancreas, and skin. They have autocrine, paracrine and endocrine activities. Many of them regulate the myocyte growth and differentiation necessary for muscle hypertrophy and myogenesis. They also modify energy homeostasis, lipid, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism, regulate inflammation and exchange information (crosstalk) between remote organs. So far, interleukin 6 and irisin have been the best studied exercise-induced cytokines. However, many more can be grouped into myokines, hepatokines and adipomyokines. This review focuses on the less known exercise-induced cytokines such as myostatin, follistatin, decorin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, fibroblast growth factor 21 and interleukin 15, and their relation to various forms of exercise, i.e., acute vs. chronic, regular training in healthy people.
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Decorin is secreted by skeletal muscle cells.
“It is secreted by skeletal muscle cells and is involved in the skeletal muscle hypertrophy and regulates muscle growth with the practice of physical exercise [63].”
From Adipokines, Myokines, and Hepatokines: Crosstalk and Metabolic Repercussions (2021) · cites this paper as [63]
Decorin regulates muscle growth with the practice of physical exercise.
“It is secreted by skeletal muscle cells and is involved in the skeletal muscle hypertrophy and regulates muscle growth with the practice of physical exercise [63].”
From Adipokines, Myokines, and Hepatokines: Crosstalk and Metabolic Repercussions (2021) · cites this paper as [63]
Decreased myostatin function enhances skeletal muscle growth and improves whole-body glycaemic control.
“Decreased function of myostatin enhances skeletal muscle growth and improves whole-body glycaemic control44,99.”
From Exerkines in health, resilience and disease (2022) · cites this paper as [99]
In humans and mouse models, acute and chronic exercise increase liver-secreted follistatin, which has been reported to antagonize myostatin.
“in both humans97–99 and mouse models100, acute exercise97,100 and chronic exercise98 increase liver-secreted follistatin, which has been reported to antagonize the effects of myostatin99.”
From Exerkines in health, resilience and disease (2022) · cites this paper as [99]
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“Myostatin Muscle protein synthesis and degradation [37] Downregulation of muscle structural genes and myogenic factors [37] Inhibition of muscle cell proliferation and differentiation [37] Inhibition of activation of the AKT/mTOR pathway [37] Regulation of the number of muscle fibers in embryogenesis [37] Inhibition o…”
BackgroundInhibin at 90: From Discovery to Clinical Application, a Historical Review
Makanji, Y., Zhu, J., Mishra, R. K., Holmquist, C., Wong, W. P. S., Schwartz, N. B., Mayo, K. E., & Woodruff, T. K. (2014) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/er.2014-1003 · Cited by 187 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It circulates in three isoforms: Fst288, Fst303 and Fst301 [84,85].”
BackgroundBrain-derived Neurotrophic Factor in Megakaryocytes
Chacón-Fernández, P., Säuberli, K., Colzani, M., Moreau, T., Ghevaert, C., & Barde, Y.-A. (2016) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m116.720029 · Cited by 186 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Recent studies have found that megakaryocytes are the primary source of BDNF in platelets and serum [99], suggesting that serum BDNF concentration does not reflect its brain level.”
BackgroundMuscular and Systemic Correlates of Resistance Training-Induced Muscle Hypertrophy
Mitchell, C. J., Churchward‐Venne, T. A., Bellamy, L. M., Parise, G., Baker, S. K., & Phillips, S. M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078636 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Immunologic Mediators as Parameters of the Reaction to Strenuous Exercise
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“in 1991, who reported an increase in IL-6 concentration after a marathon run [12].”
BackgroundExercise increases serum fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) levels
Cuevas-Ramos, D., Almeda-Valdés, P., Meza-Arana, C. E., Brito-Córdova, G., Gómez-Pérez, F. J., Mehta, R., Oseguera-Moguel, J., & Aguilar-Salinas, C. A. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038022 · Cited by 178 · cited 27× · see citing works
“FGF21 serum concentration increased 1 h after exercise: ~3 fold after mild-intensity (50% VO2max) and ~5 fold after high-intensity (80% VO2max) training.”
InfluentialMurawska‐Ciałowicz, E., Wojna, J., & Zuwala-Jagiello, J. (2015) · PubMed · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Influence of carbohydrate ingestion on immune changes after 2 h of intensive resistance training
Nieman, D. C., Davis, J. M., Brown, V. A., Henson, D. A., Dumke, C. L., Utter, A. C., Vinci, D. M., Downs, M. F., Smith, J., Carson, J. A., et al. (2004) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01064.2003 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
BDNF: The career of a multifaceted neurotrophin in spinal cord injury
Weishaupt, N., Blesch, A., & Fouad, K. (2012) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.09.001 · Cited by 163 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Development and survival of adult dorsal root ganglion neurons (motor neurons) [51] Development of neuronal and glial cells [52] Regulation of the synaptic structure and its maintenance—critical for memory and cognition [51,52] Exercise-induced neuroplasticity—may contribute to improv…”
BackgroundMyokines mediate the cross talk between skeletal muscle and other organs
Chen, W., Wang, L., You, W., & Shan, T. (2021) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.30033 · Cited by 162 · cited 1× · see citing works
“focused on tissue crosstalk mechanisms, highlighting that myokines mediate the effects of muscle work on whole-body metabolism [34].”
BackgroundFox, J., Rioux, B. V., Goulet, E. D. B., Johanssen, N. M., Swift, D. L., Bouchard, D. R., Loewen, H., & Sénéchal, M. (2018) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.12904 · Cited by 161 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Immediately following an acute bout of exercise, irisin concentration increases substantially in adults [23].”
BackgroundLeclercq, G., Debacker, V., Smedt, M. D., & Plum, J. R. (1996) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.184.2.325 · Cited by 156 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Interleukin 15 Immune cell proliferation, differentiation and maturation [58,59] Immune response regulation [60] Muscle protein synthesis [61] Adipose tissue reduction [62,63].”
BackgroundActivation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase by Interleukin-6 in Rat Skeletal Muscle
Kelly, M., Gauthier, M., Saha, A. K., & Ruderman, N. B. (2009) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db08-1293 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Additive relationship between serum fibroblast growth factor 21 level and coronary artery disease
Shen, Y., Ma, X., Zhou, J., Pan, X., Hao, Y., Zhou, M., Lu, Z., Gao, M., Bao, Y., & Jia, W. (2013) · Cardiovascular Diabetology · doi:10.1186/1475-2840-12-124 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Acute exercise increases fibroblast growth factor 21 in metabolic organs and circulation
Tanimura, Y., Aoi, W., Takanami, Y., Kawai, Y., Mizushima, K., Naito, Y., & Yoshikawa, T. (2016) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.12828 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Chronic Exercise Training and Circulating Irisin in Adults: A Meta-Analysis
Qiu, S., Cai, X., Sun, Z., Schumann, U., Zügel, M., & Steinacker, J. M. (2015) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0293-4 · Cited by 129 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Evidence from non-randomized studies is inconclusive [24].”
Circulating follistatin is liver-derived and regulated by the glucagon-to-insulin ratio
Hansen, J. S., Rutti, S., Arous, C., Clemmesen, J. O., Secher, N. H., Drescher, A., Gonelle-Gispert, C., Halban, P. A., Pedersen, B. K., Weigert, C., et al. (2016) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2015-3668 · Cited by 125 · cited 4× · see citing works
“8 years (n = 10) Blood samples for analysis of hormones were obtained before a test and then every hour (one extra sample 30 min post-exercise) simultaneously from the hepatic vein and the brachial artery 5-fold increase in plasma FST in the hepatic vein and brachial artery during the first 2 h of recovery [43]”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBegue, G., Douillard, A., Galbes, O., Rossano, B., Vernus, B., Candau, R., & Py, G. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057141 · Cited by 124 · cited 1× · see citing works
“IL-6 also facilitates muscle growth, regulating the function of satellite cells [10,11].”
BackgroundSignaling by the TGF SuperfamilyPreprint
Wrana, J. L. (2013) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a011197 · Cited by 124 · cited 2× · see citing works
“and further induce and integrate pathways regulating transcription in the nuclei [67].”
BackgroundIrisin: A potentially candidate marker for myocardial infarction
Kuloğlu, T., Aydın, S., Eren, M. N., Yılmaz, M., Sahin, İ., Kalayci, M., Sarman, E., Kaya, N., Yılmaz, O., Türk, A., et al. (2014) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2014.02.008 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Zwetsloot, K. A., John, C. S., Lawrence, M. M., Battista, R. A., & Shanely, R. A. (2014) · Journal of Inflammation Research · doi:10.2147/jir.s54721 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Morville, T. H., Sahl, R. E., Trammell, S. A. J., Svenningsen, J. S., Gillum, M. P., Helge, J. W., & Clemmensen, C. (2018) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.122737 · Cited by 111 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Few studies assessed further time points, though FGF21 concentration tends to normalize quickly in the resting period [128], reaching even lower than baseline values 24 h post-exercise [131].”
BackgroundInterleukin-15 increases myosin accretion in human skeletal myogenic cultures
Furmanczyk, P. S., & Quinn, L. S. (2003) · Cell Biology International · doi:10.1016/s1065-6995(03)00172-0 · Cited by 109 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Interleukin 15 Immune cell proliferation, differentiation and maturation [58,59] Immune response regulation [60] Muscle protein synthesis [61] Adipose tissue reduction [62,63].”
BackgroundMyokines in metabolic homeostasis and diabetes
Eckel, J. (2019) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-019-4927-9 · Cited by 107 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Eckel summarized the muscle-adipose, muscle-liver, muscle-bone, muscle-beta cell crosstalks, and myokines’ involvement in the anti-inflammatory effects of physical activity counteracting insulin resistance and metabolic abnormalities caused by obesity and type 2 diabetes [32].”
BackgroundHofmann, M., Schober-Halper, B., Oesen, S., Franzke, B., Tschan, H., Bachl, N., Strasser, E.-M., Quittan, M., Wagner, K., & Wessner, B. (2016) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-016-3344-8 · Cited by 106 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Resistance training (n = 33); Resistance training and supplementation (n = 28) Blood samples—baseline, after 3 months and 6 months of intervention No changes [82]”
BackgroundInfluentialHansen, J. S., Pedersen, B. K., Xu, G., Lehmann, R., Weigert, C., & Plomgaard, P. (2016) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2016-1681 · Cited by 106 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) and FST are produced mainly by the liver and both are considered hepatokines, nonetheless, their concentration alters in response to exercise classifying them as exercise-induced cytokines [35].”
BackgroundComparison of high-intensity vs. high-volume resistance training on the BDNF response to exercise
Church, D. D., Hoffman, J. R., Mangine, G. T., Jajtner, A. R., Townsend, J. R., Beyer, K. S., Wang, R., Monica, M. B. L., Fukuda, D. H., & Stout, J. R. (2016) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00233.2016 · Cited by 106 · cited 5× · see citing works
“Most studies measured serum BDNF concentration, and one study measured plasma BDNF concentration [108].”
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IL-15 activates the Jak3/STAT3 signaling pathway to mediate glucose uptake in skeletal muscle cells
Krolopp, J. E., Thornton, S. M., & Abbott, M. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00626 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Endurance training enhances skeletal muscle interleukin-15 in human male subjects
Rinnov, A., Yfanti, C., Nielsen, S., Åkerström, T. C. A., Peijs, L., Zankari, A., Fischer, C. P., & Pedersen, B. K. (2014) · Endocrine · doi:10.1007/s12020-013-9969-z · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Taniguchi, H., Tanisawa, K., Sun, X., Kubo, T., & Higuchi, M. (2015) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2015-3308 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Ikeda, S., Tamura, Y., Kakehi, S., Sanada, H., Kawamori, R., & Watada, H. (2016) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.03.159 · Cited by 100 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It is expressed acutely during exercise, promotes glycogen breakdown, increases glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) expression and glucose uptake in myocytes, enhancing insulin sensitivity [6,7].”
BackgroundLeggate, M., Nowell, M. A., Jones, S. A., & Nimmo, M. A. (2010) · Cell Stress and Chaperones · doi:10.1007/s12192-010-0192-z · Cited by 95 · see citing works
The role of myokines in muscle health and disease
Lightfoot, A. P., & Cooper, R. G. (2016) · Current Opinion in Rheumatology · doi:10.1097/bor.0000000000000337 · Cited by 89 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Consequently, MSTN’s regulatory effects are inhibited, leading to muscle fiber hypertrophy [93,96].”
BackgroundExtracellular Regulation of Myostatin: A Molecular Rheostat for Muscle Mass
Lee, S. (2010) · Immunology Endocrine & Metabolic Agents - Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.2174/187152210793663748 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Lessard, S. J., Rivas, D. A., Alves-Wagner, A. B., Hirshman, M. F., Gallagher, I. J., Constantin‐Teodosiu, D., Atkins, R. P., Greenhaff, P. L., Qi, N., Gustafsson, T. P., et al. (2013) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db13-0062 · Cited by 85 · cited 1× · see citing works
“By causing the nuclear accumulation of SMAD (main signal transducers for receptors of the TGF-B superfamily) proteins, it activates genes involved in skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise [71,72].”
BackgroundTsai, C., Pan, C., Chen, F., Wang, C., & Chou, F.-Y. (2016) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep085682 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Control of memory CD8+ T cell longevity and effector functions by IL-15
Nolz, J. C., & Richer, M. J. (2019) · Molecular Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2019.11.011 · Cited by 84 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Interleukin 15 Immune cell proliferation, differentiation and maturation [58,59] Immune response regulation [60] Muscle protein synthesis [61] Adipose tissue reduction [62,63].”
BackgroundEvolution of the FGF Gene Family
Oulion, S., Bertrand, S., & Escrivá, H. (2012) · International Journal of Evolutionary Biology · doi:10.1155/2012/298147 · Cited by 83 · cited 2× · see citing works
“They facilitate cell differentiation, migration, and survival [54].”
BackgroundSchneyer, A. L., Sidis, Y., Gulati, A. D., Sun, J. L., Keutmann, H. T., & Krasney, P. A. (2008) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2008-0259 · Cited by 82 · cited 1× · see citing works
“FST is an antagonist of MSTN and other TGF-b superfamily members and prevents these proteins from binding to the activin IIb receptor [47,87].”
BackgroundMyokine Response to High-Intensity Interval vs. Resistance Exercise: An Individual Approach
He, Z., Tian, Y., Valenzuela, P. L., Huang, C., Zhao, J., Hong, P., He, Z., Yin, S., & Lucía, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01735 · Cited by 82 · cited 15× · see citing works
“HIIT2 to ~135% of the basal value.”
BackgroundInfluentialBagheri, R., Rashidlamir, A., Motevalli, M. S., Elliott, B., Mehrabani, J., & Wong, A. (2019) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-019-04180-z · Cited by 79 · see citing works
A review on irisin, a new protagonist that mediates muscle-adipose-bone-neuron connectivity.
Grygiel‐Górniak, B., & Puszczewicz, M. (2017) · PubMed · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Antunes, B. M., Rossi, F. E., Teixeira, A. M. A. J., & Lira, F. S. (2019) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2019.1611929 · Cited by 74 · cited 4× · see citing works
“On the other hand, different exercise types and their duration evoked similar effects—an increase in BDNF concentration after exercise, with few exceptions in rare situations [106,110,111].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHan, X., Møller, L. L. V., Groote, E. D., Bojsen-Møller, K. N., Davey, J. R., Henríquez‐Olguín, C., Li, Z., Knudsen, J. R., Jensen, T. E., Madsbad, S., et al. (2019) · Journal of Cachexia Sarcopenia and Muscle · doi:10.1002/jcsm.12474 · Cited by 73 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Follistatin Suppression of follicle-stimulating hormone [43] Inhibition of myostatin [44] Myostatin independent muscle growth regulation [45] Browning of white adipose tissue [46] TGF-beta family signaling inhibition [47] Inhibition of extracellular matrix turnover [48] Insulin-dependent regulation of glucose uptake […”
BackgroundDifferential distribution of follistatin isoforms: application of a new FS315-specific immunoassay
Schneyer, A. L., Wang, Q., Sidis, Y., & Sluss, P. M. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0162 · Cited by 71 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It circulates in three isoforms: Fst288, Fst303 and Fst301 [84,85].”
BackgroundSkeletal muscle IL ‐15/ IL ‐15Rα and myofibrillar protein synthesis after resistance exercise
Pérez‐López, A., McKendry, J., Martín-Rincón, M., Morales‐Álamo, D., Kohler, B., Valadés, D., Buján, J., Calbet, J. A. L., & Breen, L. (2017) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.12901 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Wagner, G., Herbsleb, M., de la Cruz, F., Schumann, A., Brünner, F., Schachtzabel, C., Gussew, A., Puta, C., Smesny, S., Gabriel, H. W., et al. (2015) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2015.125 · Cited by 69 · cited 5× · see citing works
“On the other hand, different exercise types and their duration evoked similar effects—an increase in BDNF concentration after exercise, with few exceptions in rare situations [106,110,111].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCirculating follistatin in relation to energy metabolism
Hansen, J. S., & Plomgaard, P. (2016) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2016.06.002 · Cited by 62 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In humans under increased energy demand, for example, after acute exercise or prolonged fasting, FST is probably stimulated by an increased glucagon-to-insulin ratio [86,88].”
BackgroundNadeau, L., Patten, D. A., Caron, A., Garneau, L., Pinault-Masson, É., Foretz, M., Haddad, P., Anderson, B. G., Quinn, L. S., Jardine, K. E., et al. (2018) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects · doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.10.021 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Liu, X., Bauman, W. A., & Cardozo, C. P. (2018) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13837 · Cited by 59 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Myostatin Muscle protein synthesis and degradation [37] Downregulation of muscle structural genes and myogenic factors [37] Inhibition of muscle cell proliferation and differentiation [37] Inhibition of activation of the AKT/mTOR pathway [37] Regulation of the number of muscle fibers in embryogenesis [37] Inhibition o…”
BackgroundMyokine/Adipokine response to “Aerobic” exercise: Is it just a matter of exercise load?
He, Z., Tian, Y., Valenzuela, P. L., Huang, C., Zhao, J., Hong, P., He, Z., Yin, S., & Lucia, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.00691 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Sargeant, J. A., Aithal, G. P., Takamura, T., Misu, H., Takayama, H., Douglas, J. A., Turner, M. C., Stensel, D. J., Nimmo, M. A., Webb, D. R., et al. (2018) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2017-0639 · Cited by 56 · cited 2× · see citing works
“75 h (~1000 pg/mL at the baseline to ~1400 pg/mL at peak) [91]”
BackgroundFortunato, A. K., Pontes, W. M., de Souza, D. M. S., Prazeres, J. S. F., Marcucci-Barbosa, L. S., Santos, J. M. M., Vieira, É. L. M., Bearzoti, E., Pinto, K. M. D. C., Talvani, A., et al. (2018) · Journal of Immunology Research · doi:10.1155/2018/9675216 · Cited by 55 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Subjects exercised on a cycle ergometer [104,109,111], treadmill [112], underwent strength exercises [105], high intensity interval training [106,108,109] or other types of exercises like general workout or taekwondo [102,103,107,110,113].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPolyakova, M., Schlögl, H., Sacher, J., Schmidt‐Kassow, M., Kaiser, J., Stümvoll, M., Kratzsch, J., & Schroeter, M. L. (2017) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms18061189 · Cited by 53 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Serum BDNF measurement is favoured over the EDTA-plasma for its higher reliability [114].”
BackgroundPerakakis, N., Mougios, V., Fatouros, I., Siopi, A., Draganidis, D., Peradze, N., Ghaly, W., & Mantzoros, C. S. (2018) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2018-01056 · Cited by 52 · cited 14× · see citing works
“HIIT2 to ~135% of the basal value.”
BackgroundInfluentialHormonal responses following eccentric exercise in humans
Philippou, Α., Maridaki, M. D., Τέντα, Ρ., & Koutsilieris, M. (2017) · HORMONES · doi:10.14310/horm.2002.1761 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Nishida, Y., Tanaka, K., Hara, M., Hirao, N., Tanaka, H., Tobina, T., Ikeda, M., Yamato, H., & Ohta, M. (2015) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2015.06.017 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Effect of exercise intensity on circulating hepatokine concentrations in healthy men
Willis, S. A., Sargeant, J. A., Thackray, A. E., Yates, T. E., Stensel, D. J., Aithal, G. P., & King, J. A. (2019) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2018-0818 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Interleukin‐15 in obesity and metabolic dysfunction: current understanding and future perspectives
Duan, Y., Li, F., Wang, W., Guo, Q., Wen, C., Li, Y., & Yin, Y. (2017) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12567 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Changes in Serum Levels of Myokines and Wnt-Antagonists after an Ultramarathon Race
Kerschan‐Schindl, K., Thalmann, M., Weiss, E., Tsironi, M., Föger‐Samwald, U., Meinhart, J., Skenderi, K., & Pietschmann, P. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132478 · Cited by 46 · cited 2× · see citing works
“examined a group of highly trained long-distance runners after completing an ultramarathon [78].”
BackgroundThe emerging role of follistatin under stresses and its implications in diseases
Zhang, L., Liu, K., Han, B., Xu, Z., & Gao, X. (2017) · Gene · doi:10.1016/j.gene.2017.10.017 · Cited by 44 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Follistatin Suppression of follicle-stimulating hormone [43] Inhibition of myostatin [44] Myostatin independent muscle growth regulation [45] Browning of white adipose tissue [46] TGF-beta family signaling inhibition [47] Inhibition of extracellular matrix turnover [48] Insulin-dependent regulation of glucose uptake […”
BackgroundSun, H., & Liu, D. (2015) · Gene Therapy · doi:10.1038/gt.2014.114 · Cited by 43 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Glucose metabolism regulation [64,65] Skeletal and heart muscle Placenta Monocytes/macrophages Bone marrow Thymus Lung Liver Kidney”
BackgroundElliott, B., Herbert, P., Sculthorpe, N. F., Grace, F., Stratton, D., & Hayes, L. D. (2017) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13343 · Cited by 43 · cited 17× · see citing works
“Regular exercise effects were investigated in a few studies, ranging from five weeks to six months [68,76,81,82].”
BackgroundInfluentialMicielska, K., Gmiat, A., Żychowska, M., Flis, M., Walentukiewicz, A., Łysak, A., Jaworska, J., Rodziewicz-Flis, E. A., Duda-Biernacka, B., & Ziemann, E. (2019) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2019.05.009 · Cited by 43 · cited 8× · see citing works
“Regular exercise effects were investigated in a few studies, ranging from five weeks to six months [68,76,81,82].”
BackgroundInfluentialPark, K. M., Park, S. C., & Kang, S. (2019) · Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation · doi:10.12965/jer.1938368.184 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Roh, H., Cho, S.-Y., & So, W.-Y. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17072505 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Bugera, E. M., Duhamel, T. A., Peeler, J. D., & Cornish, S. M. (2018) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-018-3995-8 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Myokine Expression in Muscle and Myotubes in Response to Exercise Stimulation
Covington, J. D., Tam, C. S., Bajpeyi, S., Galgani, J. E., Noland, R. C., Smith, S. R., Redman, L. M., & Ravussin, É. (2015) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000000787 · Cited by 38 · cited 1× · see citing works
“found an association between high MSTN concentration, lower content of type I slow-twitch muscle fibers and higher content of type II fast-twitch fibers in people [73].”
BackgroundParacrine and endocrine modes of myostatin action
Lee, Y., Huynh, T. V., & Lee, S. (2016) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00874.2015 · Cited by 37 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Myostatin Muscle protein synthesis and degradation [37] Downregulation of muscle structural genes and myogenic factors [37] Inhibition of muscle cell proliferation and differentiation [37] Inhibition of activation of the AKT/mTOR pathway [37] Regulation of the number of muscle fibers in embryogenesis [37] Inhibition o…”
BackgroundКапилевич, Л. В., Zakharova, A. N., Kabachkova, A. V., Кироненко, Т. А., & Orlov, S. N. (2017) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00035 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Bazgir, B., Salesi, M., Jahromi, M. K., & Amirghofran, Z. (2015) · Asian Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.5812/asjsm.27980 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Acute Effect of Cluster and Traditional Set Configurations on Myokines Associated with Hypertrophy
Oliver, J. M., Jenke, S. C., Mata, J. D., Kreutzer, A., & Jones, M. T. (2016) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/s-0042-115031 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Adaptation of exercise‐induced stress in well‐trained healthy young men
JanssenDuijghuijsen, L. M., Keijer, J., Mensink, M., Lenaerts, K., Ridder, L., Nierkens, S., Kartaram, S. W., Verschuren, M. C. M., Pieters, R. H. H., Bas, R., et al. (2016) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep086025 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Khalafi, M., Alamdari, K. A., Symonds, M. E., Nobari, H., & Carlos-Vivas, J. (2021) · HORMONES · doi:10.1007/s42000-020-00245-3 · Cited by 34 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In a recent meta-analysis, circulating FGF21 increased immediately after exercise, reached maximal concentration at one hour of recovery and returned to baseline within three hours of recovery [132].”
BackgroundKazemi, F. (2015) · Journal of Endocrinological Investigation · doi:10.1007/s40618-015-0373-9 · Cited by 32 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, much later than in other studies [77].”
ResultIrisin and myostatin responses to acute high-intensity interval exercise in humans
Kabak, B., Belviranlı, M., & Okudan, N. (2018) · Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1515/hmbci-2018-0008 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Singh, R., Pervin, S., Lee, S., Kuo, A., Grijalva, V. R., David, J., Vergnes, L., & Reddy, S. T. (2018) · Diabetes Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity · doi:10.2147/dmso.s159315 · Cited by 29 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Follistatin Suppression of follicle-stimulating hormone [43] Inhibition of myostatin [44] Myostatin independent muscle growth regulation [45] Browning of white adipose tissue [46] TGF-beta family signaling inhibition [47] Inhibition of extracellular matrix turnover [48] Insulin-dependent regulation of glucose uptake […”
BackgroundIL-15/sIL-15Rα gene transfer induces weight loss and improves glucose homeostasis in obese mice
Sun, H. Y., Ma, Y., Gao, M., & Liu, D. (2016) · Gene Therapy · doi:10.1038/gt.2016.4 · Cited by 26 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Glucose metabolism regulation [64,65] Skeletal and heart muscle Placenta Monocytes/macrophages Bone marrow Thymus Lung Liver Kidney”
BackgroundIrisin – a new mediator of energy homeostasis
Pukajło, K., Kolačkov, K., Łaczmański, Ł., & Daroszewski, J. (2015) · Postępy Higieny i Medycyny Doświadczalnej · doi:10.5604/17322693.1141097 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Acute long-distance trail running increases serum IL-6, IL-15, and Hsp72 levels
Yargıç, M. P., Torğutalp, Ş. Ş., Akın, Ş., Babayeva, N., Torğutalp, M., & Demirel, H. A. (2018) · Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2018-0520 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Myostatin regulates pituitary development and hepatic IGF1
Czaja, W., Nakamura, Y., Li, N., Eldridge, J. A., DeAvila, D. M., Thompson, T. B., & Rodgers, B. D. (2019) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00001.2019 · Cited by 21 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Myostatin Muscle protein synthesis and degradation [37] Downregulation of muscle structural genes and myogenic factors [37] Inhibition of muscle cell proliferation and differentiation [37] Inhibition of activation of the AKT/mTOR pathway [37] Regulation of the number of muscle fibers in embryogenesis [37] Inhibition o…”
BackgroundAcute endurance exercise lowers serum fibroblast growth factor 21 levels in Japanese men
Taniguchi, H., Tanisawa, K., Sun, X., & Higuchi, M. (2016) · Clinical Endocrinology · doi:10.1111/cen.13162 · Cited by 20 · cited 28× · see citing works
“FGF21 serum concentration increased 1 h after exercise: ~3 fold after mild-intensity (50% VO2max) and ~5 fold after high-intensity (80% VO2max) training.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialParmar, B., Lewis, J. E., Samms, R. J., Ebling, F. J. P., Cheng, C., Adams, A. C., Mallinson, J. E., Cooper, S., Taylor, T., Ghasemi, R., et al. (2018) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep086669 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Knuiman, P., Hopman, M. T. E., Hangelbroek, R., & Mensink, M. (2018) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13708 · Cited by 18 · cited 1× · see citing works
“studied 13 young and healthy adults who underwent endurance and resistance exercise sessions [94].”
BackgroundAntioxidants Facilitate High–intensity Exercise IL–15 Expression in Skeletal Muscle
Pérez‐López, A., Martín-Rincón, M., Santana, A., Pérez-Suárez, I., Dorado, C., Calbet, J. A. L., & Morales‐Álamo, D. (2018) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-0781-2527 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Kang, Y. M., Lee, S.-K., Chun, Y., Choi, Y., Moon, S. H., Lee, H., & Kang, H. J. (2019) · Yonsei Medical Journal · doi:10.3349/ymj.2020.61.1.85 · Cited by 5 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Follistatin Suppression of follicle-stimulating hormone [43] Inhibition of myostatin [44] Myostatin independent muscle growth regulation [45] Browning of white adipose tissue [46] TGF-beta family signaling inhibition [47] Inhibition of extracellular matrix turnover [48] Insulin-dependent regulation of glucose uptake […”
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Exerkines in health, resilience and disease
Chow, L. S., Gerszten, R. E., Taylor, J. M., Pedersen, B. K., van Praag, H., Trappe, S., Febbraio, M. A., Galis, Z. S., Gao, Y., Haus, J. M., et al. (2022) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/s41574-022-00641-2 · Cited by 927 · see citing works
Bilski, J., Pierzchalski, P., Szczepanik, M., Bonior, J., & Zoladz, J. A. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11010160 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
The molecular athlete: exercise physiology from mechanisms to medals
Furrer, R., Hawley, J. A., & Handschin, C. (2023) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00017.2022 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Adipokines, Myokines, and Hepatokines: Crosstalk and Metabolic Repercussions
de Oliveira dos Santos, A. R., de Oliveira Zanuso, B., Miola, V. F. B., Barbalho, S. M., Santos Bueno, P. C., Flato, U. A. P., Detregiachi, C. R. P., Buchaim, D. V., Buchaim, R. L., Tofano, R. J., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22052639 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“It is secreted by skeletal muscle cells and is involved in the skeletal muscle hypertrophy and regulates muscle growth with the practice of physical exercise [63].”
BackgroundThe Role of the Skeletal Muscle Secretome in Mediating Endurance and Resistance Training Adaptations
Leuchtmann, A. B., Adak, V., Dilbaz, S., & Handschin, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.709807 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Inconclusive results have been reported regarding the regulation of myostatin expression following chronic resistance exercise and the increase in muscle mass, and at least in some studies, myostatin expression even increases after acute exercise bouts (Domin et al., 2021).”
BackgroundBettariga, F., Taaffe, D. R., Galvão, D. A., Lopez, P., Bishop, C., Markarian, A. M., Natalucci, V., Kim, J.-S., & Newton, R. U. (2024) · Journal of Sport and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2024.04.005 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“27 In addition, and of utmost importance, the effects of different exercise modes on myokine response remain to be clarified.”
BackgroundSpann, R. A., Morrison, C. D., & den Hartigh, L. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.802541 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Ageing of skeletal muscle extracellular matrix and mitochondria: finding a potential link
Cai, L., Shi, L., Peng, Z., Sun, Y., & Chen, J. (2023) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.1080/07853890.2023.2240707 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Irisin is a cleaved product of fibronectin type-III domain-containing protein 5 (FNDC5) and the muscles have been regarded as one of its major sources [147].”
BackgroundAssar, M. E., Rodríguez-Sánchez, I., Álvarez‐Bustos, A., & Rodríguez‐Mañas, L. (2024) · Molecular Aspects of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mam.2024.101271 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Hernández-Lepe, M. A., Miranda-Gil, M. I., Valbuena-Gregorio, E., & Olivas-Aguirre, F. J. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15081998 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“It is generally accepted that regular exercise sessions stimulate the release of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines [47].”
BackgroundMitochondrial Mutations and Genetic Factors Determining NAFLD Risk
Dabravolski, S. A., Bezsonov, E. E., Baig, M. S., Попкова, Т. В., Недосугова, Л. В., Starodubova, A. V., & Orekhov, A. N. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22094459 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“In addition to the pro-inflammatory role, IL-6 acts as an anti-inflammatory myokine, produced from muscles upon contraction [161].”
BackgroundTime Course and Role of Exercise-Induced Cytokines in Muscle Damage and Repair After a Marathon Race
Zocoler, C. A. S., Sierra, A., Galán, B. S. M., Maciel, J. F. D. S., Manoel, R., Barbeiro, H. V., de Souza, H. P., & Cury‐Boaventura, M. F. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.752144 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“In this study, in response to the exercise, the IL-6 expression was positively correlated with that of FGF-21 and follistatin, which are considered hepatokines, rather than the myokines (Domin et al., 2021).”
BackgroundResultPorflitt-Rodríguez, M., Guzmán-Arriagada, V., Sandoval-Valderrama, R., Tam, C. S., Pavicic, F., Ehrenfeld, P., & Martínez-Huenchullán, S. (2022) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2022.155137 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Balestra, C., Lambrechts, K., Mrakic‐Sposta, S., Vezzoli, A., Lévénez, M., Germonpré, P., Virgili, F., Bosco, G., & Lafère, P. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22179600 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“In fact, recept rs for e ercise-induced cytokines are present in several body tissues including muscle tissue, adipose tissue, and brain [28].”
BackgroundEnergy metabolism and frailty: The potential role of exercise-induced myokines – A narrative review
Barros, D. G. M., Marques, E. A., Magalhães, J., & Carvalho, J. (2022) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2022.101780 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“The metabolic demands to exercise greatly vary depending on the exercise intensity and the ATP needed; therefore, many myokines can be highly dependent on exercise structure and muscle fiber type (Domin et al., 2021; Nielsen et al., 2007).”
InfluentialLu, Z., Wang, Z., Zhang, X., & Ning, K. (2024) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom14101205 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…for regulating and protecting body functions through exercise training (Table 1 and Figure 2). training (CT) (60 min/day, reduced total fat mass and visceral fat area (VFA) [76] The regulation of myokine secretion by exercise can be a ff ected by the mode, intensity, and duration of exercise [8].”
BackgroundIrisin and Energy Metabolism and the Role of Irisin on Metabolic Syndrome
Aladag, T., Moğulkoç, R., & Baltacı, A. K. (2023) · Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.2174/1389557523666230411105506 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Exercise-regulated lipolysis: Its role and mechanism in health and diseases
Zhu, J., & Guo, L. (2024) · Journal of Advanced Research · doi:10.1016/j.jare.2024.11.031 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Human studies indicated that acute endurance exercise led to an increase in FGF21 levels in the body [67,68] and the levels of FGF21 in mouse serum, skeletal muscle, and liver significantly were increased in mice subjected to acute endurance exercise as well [69,70].”
Arias‐Calderón, M., Casas, M., Balanta‐Melo, J., Morales, C., Hernández, N., Llanos, P., Jaimovich, E., & Buvinic, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1059020 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Aerobic exercise has been strongly associated with the increase in FGF21 plasma levels in humans (as reviewed in (21, 22)); it has been suggested derived from the liver, but tissue source of plasmatic FGF21 has not been addressed in those reports (23–28).”
BackgroundExercise-Induced Fibroblast Growth Factor-21: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Kim, H., Jung, J., Park, S., Joo, Y., Lee, S., Sim, J., Choi, J., Lee, H., Hwang, G., & Lee, S. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24087284 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“This is consistent with the fact that it increases with age [45].”
BackgroundMethodCui, X., Liu, H., Liu, Y., Yu, Z., Wang, D., Wei, W., & Wang, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2025.1665708 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“It blocks the binding of myostatin to its receptor, thereby lifting the inhibition on muscle growth and promoting the activation of muscle satellite cells and muscle fiber hypertrophy (80, 81).”
Circulating irisin level in chronic kidney disease patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Gan, W., Chen, W., Li, T., Shao, D., Xu, F. Z., Huo, S., Li, C., Yang, Z., & Zeng, X. (2021) · International Urology and Nephrology · doi:10.1007/s11255-021-03000-8 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Gu, X., Cai, L., Luo, Z., Shi, L., Peng, Z., Sun, Y., & Chen, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1057088 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“The muscles and adipose cells have been regarded the major source of irisin (21), and the post-exercise irisin secretion from muscles leads to the activation of browning and energy expenditure in white adipose tissues (20).”
BackgroundGonzález‐Chávez, S. A., López-Loeza, S. M., Acosta-Jiménez, S., Cuevas-Martínez, R., Pacheco-Silva, C., Chaparro-Barrera, E., & Pacheco‐Tena, C. (2023) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom13030488 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Moreover, PE also influences the regulation of innate immunity and inflammation [28,29].”
BackgroundLeukocyte cytokine responses in adult patients with mitochondrial DNA defects
Karan, K. R., Trumpff, C., Cross, M., Engelstad, K., Marsland, A. L., McGuire, P. J., Hirano, M., & Picard, M. A. (2022) · Journal of Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s00109-022-02206-2 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α ), and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 β ), which are also physiologically induced by acute physical [16, 17] and psychological stress [18, 19], indicating their broad physiological sig-nificance and relative lack of specificity.”
BackgroundOsteosarcopenia and Pain: Do We Have a Way Out?
Bonanni, R., Grillo, S. G., Cariati, I., Tranquillo, L., Iundusi, R., Gasbarra, E., Tancredi, V., & Tarantino, U. (2023) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines11051285 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Song, H., Ma, H., Shi, J., Liu, Y., Kan, C., Hou, N., Han, J. D. J., Sun, X., & Qiu, H. (2023) · International Journal of Biological Macromolecules · doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.125148 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Losasso, M. R., Parussolo, M. L. C., Silva, A. O., Direito, R., Quesada, K. R., Detregiachi, C. R. P., Bechara, M. D., Méndez‐Sánchez, N., Abenavoli, L., Araújo, A. C., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26104673 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…when the muscle contracts and may stimulate anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory responses; (11) IL-7 is important to the myogenesis process and may stimulate satellite cells differentiation; (12) IL-15 was newly proposed to have the action of a myokine in the metabolism regulation [140,196–202].”
Wei, C., Li, X., Yu, J. Z., Zhang, Y., & Yuan, Q. (2024) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.31287 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“FST, a glycoprotein belonging to the transforming growth factor ‐ β superfamily, is mainly attributed to hepatic secretion and regulated by the ratio of glucagon to insulin, whose expression is increased after exercise (Domin et al., 2021).”
Lim, J. Y., & Kim, E. (2023) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo13090979 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Exercise, Exerkines, and Sarcopenia
Chung, H. S., & Choi, K. M. (2026) · Diabetes & Metabolism Journal · doi:10.4093/dmj.2025.0972 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Both acute and chronic exercise elevate circulating fol-listatin levels in rodents and humans [41-44] and amplify the muscle anabolic environment induced by reduced myostatin signaling [41].”
Zhou, Q., Wang, D., Yang, Z., & Chen, X. (2025) · Microchemical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.microc.2025.114760 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Janik, M., Blachut, D., Czogalik, Ł., Tomasik, A. R., Wojciechowska, C., & Kukulski, T. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26178329 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…reviews indicate that BDNF acts on the myocardium by inhibiting cardiomyocyte apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction, supporting angiogenesis, enhancing cardiomyocyte contractility, and regulating calcium homeostasis through tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) signaling pathways [64–67].”
Physical Exercise-Induced FGF-21 to Fight Obesity: An Update Review
Vecchiatto, B., de Castro, T. L., Muller, C. R., Azevedo‐Martins, A. K., & Evangelista, F. S. (2022) · Obesities · doi:10.3390/obesities2040031 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“As discussed previously, differences in exercise protocols, age, and sex of participants can explain the results [48].”
Landman, T. R. J., Uthman, L., Hofmans, I. A. H., Schoon, Y., de Leeuw, F., & Thijssen, D. H. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.1026711 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Studies examining the acute effects of exercise on FGF-21 have presented conflicting results, ranging from an increase of FGF-21 following whole-body exercise in healthy individuals (de Sousa et al., 2021; Domin et al., 2021; Jurimae et al., 2021), small FGF-21 changes in obese subjects and even lower FGF-21 in older…”
BackgroundSierra, A., Galán, B. S. M., Zocoler, C. A. S., de Menezes, D. C., Branquinho, J. L. D. O., Neves, R. L., Arata, J. G., Bittencourt, C. A., Barbeiro, H. V., de Souza, H. P., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.919544 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Domin, R., Pytka, M., Żołyński, M., Niziński, J., Ruciński, M., Guzik, P., Zieliński, J., & Ruchała, M. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241914951 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“These molecules act as hormones with autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine activity [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationZakharova, A. N., Кироненко, Т. А., Милованова, К. Г., Орлова, А. А., Dyakova, E. Y., Kalinnikova, J. G., Kabachkova, A. V., Chibalin, A., & Капилевич, Л. В. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.709039 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Suzuki, K., Hekmatikar, A. H. A., Jalalian, S., Abbasi, S., Ahmadi, E., Kazemi, A., Ruhee, R. T., & Khoramipour, K. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192315645 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Maternal Exercise during Pregnancy Impacts Motor Performance in 9-Year-Old Children: A Pilot Study
Ferrari, N., Schmidt, N., Bae‐Gartz, I., Vohlen, C., Alcazar, M. A. A., Brockmeier, K., Dötsch, J., Mahabir, E., & Joisten, C. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10111797 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Various studies have demonstrated that exercise can positively affect BDNF levels in the blood serum, even during pregnancy [18,20,41].”
BackgroundThe decorin and myostatin response to acute whole body vibration: impact of adiposity, sex, and race
Broniec, M. N., Norland, K., Thomas, J., Wang, X., & Harris, R. A. (2024) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-024-01630-3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Physical and Cognitive Activities: Interaction and Mechanisms of Influence
Kabachkova, A. V., Zakharova, A. N., Krivoshchekov, S. G., & Капилевич, Л. В. (2022) · Human Physiology · doi:10.1134/s0362119722600199 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In general, IL-6 has systemic effects and affects the liver, adipose tissue, and increases insulin secretion [30].”
Backgroundde Carvalho, M. R., Duarte, E., Mendonça, M. L., de Morais, C. S., Ota, G. E., Gaspar-Junior, J. J., Filiú, W. F. D. O., Damatto, F. C., Okoshi, M. P., Okoshi, K., et al. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15092224 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Resistance exercise training has been associated with reduced serum myostatin levels, as well as follistatin modulation [28] and increased muscle mass; these effects were amplified in response to creatine supplementation [29].”
BackgroundPytka, M., Pałasz-Borkowska, A., Tarchalski, J., Nowak, A., Przymuszala, D., Schneider, A., Bryl, M., Kaczmarek, J., Krauze, T., Piskorski, J., et al. (2022) · Polskie Archiwum Medycyny Wewnętrznej · doi:10.20452/pamw.16303 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationJürimäe, J., Remmel, L., Tamm, A., Purge, P., Maasalu, K., & Tillmann, V. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11247450 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Recently, various myokines have been found to mediate training-induced energy and metabolic processes [9,11], besides the most investigated and well-known myokine-IL6 [1,12].”
BackgroundChronic Low or High Nutrient Intake and Myokine Levels
Sierra, A., de Fontes-Junior, A. A., Paz, I. A., Zocoler, C. A. S., Manoel, L. A. D. S., de Menezes, D. C., Rocha, V. A., Barbeiro, H. V., de Souza, H. P., & Cury‐Boaventura, M. F. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15010153 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The myokine levels are dependent on various forms of exercise and training [9].”
BackgroundMu, S., Huang, C., Chen, B., Zhao, P., Xu, H., Zhang, W., & Dai, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1210457 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Meanwhile, the effects of exercise on osteokines and adipomyokines have been more widely investigated (Görgens et al., 2015; Dolan et al., 2020; Domin et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSilva, A. F., de Assis, G. G., Silva, R., Murawska‐Ciałowicz, E., Żurek, G., Carvalho, J., Roriz, M. S., Azevedo, J. A., Sampaio, A. R., Bento, T., et al. (2025) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1016/j.tjpad.2025.100267 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“For instance, acute exercise induces an increase in plasma levels of several cytokines, including IL-6, TNF-α , and BDNF [26], which play important roles in muscle growth, metabolic regulation, and the modulation of inflammation [52].”
Zhang, B., Chen, Z., Liu, J., Song, H., Yuan, F., Hu, M., Tse, A. C. Y., Lo, S. K., & Sun, F. (2025) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2025.05.012 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kurose, S., Onishi, K., Miyauchi, T., Takahashi, K., & Kimura, Y. (2023) · Endocrine Research · doi:10.1080/07435800.2023.2253452 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In addition, FST levels have been reported to increase with exercise.(17) MST overexpression in mice has been shown to promote catabolic conditions, resulting in muscle wastage and insulin resistance(18); however, FST overexpression in skeletal muscle inhibits the binding of MST to the activin type II receptor, promot…”
BackgroundShiomitsu, S., Hansen, C. M., Lenfest, M. I., Frye, C. W., & Wakshlag, J. J. (2022) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.22.07.0323 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Fernandes, M. S. D. S., Gomes, J. M., Aidar, F. J., Thuany, M., Filgueira, T. O., de Souza, R. F., Bădicu, G., Yağın, F. H., Greco, G., Cataldi, S., et al. (2023) · BMC Sports Science Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s13102-023-00763-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Strenuous physical exercise such as triathlon increases immunosuppression [9, 37, 38].”
BackgroundMănescu, D. C., Plastoi, C. D., Pîrvan, A., Dîrnu, R., Floroiu, E. A., & Popescu, A. (2026) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells15141236 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“High-intensity interval exercise combines energetic stress, calcium flux, lactate/pH shifts and vascular demand, potentially generating robust but protocol-sensitive secretory patterns [111,112].”
Decorin levels and cardiometabolic function after endurance exercise
de Fontes-Junior, A. A., Zocoler, C. A. S., de Oliveira, L. B., Sierra, A., & Cury‐Boaventura, M. F. (2025) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2025.1546370 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Decreased Follistatin Levels as a Risk of Acute Sarcopenia Marker in Elderly
Aryana, I. G. P. S., & Winangun, I. M. A. (2023) · Molecular and Cellular Biomedical Sciences · doi:10.21705/mcbs.v7i3.359 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“33 As researchers’ knowledge, to date, this current study is the first one to observe the association between changes in follistatin and acute sarcopenia.”
BackgroundInfluentialDie parakrine und endokrine Funktion der Muskulatur
Heitkamp, H. (2023) · MMW - Fortschritte der Medizin · doi:10.1007/s15006-023-2493-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kurtoğlu, A., Konar, N., Akçınar, F., Alotaibi, M. H., & Elkholi, S. M. A. (2024) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina60050784 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“After this damage, the levels of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α ), albumin, CRP and naturally occurring cytokine inhibitors and chemokines, increase [13].”
BackgroundATPase Inhibitory Factor 1—A Novel Marker of Cellular Fitness and Exercise Capacity?
Domin, R., Pytka, M., Niziński, J., Żołyński, M., Zybek‐Kocik, A., Wrotkowska, E., Zieliński, J., Guzik, P., & Ruchała, M. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232315303 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationEquine Asthma Does Not Affect Circulating Myostatin Concentrations in Horses
Kowalik, S., O’reilly, M., Niedźwiedź, А., & Kędzierski, W. (2024) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani14050799 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This effect of exercise was also observed in humans [53,54].”
BackgroundEffects of weight loss rate on myostatin and follistatin dynamics in patients with obesity
Kurose, S., Onishi, K., Miyauchi, T., Takahashi, K., & Kimura, Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2024.1418177 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cross-Platform Transcriptomic Analysis of 40 Human and Rodent Skeletal Muscle Exerkines
Taha, H. B., Robbins, N., Zoha, F.-S., Zhu, S., Vivek, N., & Bogoniewski, A. (2026) · Muscles · doi:10.3390/muscles5010015 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…biology, with evidence supporting roles in endothelial function and cardiac protection; it has also been reported to be exercise-responsive in some contexts and is frequently framed as a candidate exerkine linking skeletal muscle activity to systemic vascular and metabolic effects [80–83].”
Pirani, H., Salehi, O., Shahraki, S., Fard, A. K., & Khoramipour, K. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Research in Paramedical Sciences · doi:10.5812/jcrps-138081 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Babaeinejad, M., Matinhomaee, H., & Fatolahi, H. (2023) · Disease and Diagnosis · doi:10.34172/ddj.2023.496 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“However, in some studies, high concentrations were observed for 72 hours (10).”
BackgroundJouzi, Z., & Omidi, M. (2023) · Modern Care Journal · doi:10.5812/mcj-142039 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Remmel, L., Jürimäe, J., Tamm, A., Purge, P., & Tillmann, V. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11111384 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“However, some energy homeostasis hormones such as irisin, fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF-21), and follistatin have been discovered to mediate training-induced energy and metabolic processes [9].”
Wijono, W., Fajar, M. K., Jatmiko, T., Purnomo, M., Wiriawan, O., Pramono, B. A., Mustar, Y. S., Kusuma, I. D. M. A. W., Kurnaz, M., Widohardhono, R., et al. (2025) · Pedagogy of Physical Culture and Sports · doi:10.15561/26649837.2025.0101 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Differences in IL-10 production are also influenced by factors such as the type of exercise, intensity, duration, recovery between sessions, and variations in exercise regimens [43, 44, 45].”
Hile, E. S., & Neuhold, R. (2022) · Journal of Geriatric Oncology · doi:10.1016/j.jgo.2022.02.012
Muskulatur: „peripheres mechanisch- und Signalstoff-gestütztes Zentrum der Gesundheit“
Laube, W. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-67753-7_8
PERAN INTERLEUKIN-6 PADA OLAHRAGA : KAJIAN PUSTAKA
Nasution, S. D., Rahmi, R., & Fauziyah, Y. (2024) · Jurnal Medika Malahayati · doi:10.33024/jmm.v7i4.11460
Sabaghi, A., & Yousofvand, N. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4208840/v1
Farsani, P. A., Ghazalian, F., Mobarak, S., Radmanesh, E., & Gholami, M. (2023) · doi:10.32592/jsmj.22.4.526
A novel ex vivo model of nerve-induced skeletal muscle contractionPreprint
Dabadie, C., Belaïdi, E., BERIATOU, I., Moretta, A., Lemarié, L., Allard, B., Kneppers, A. E. M., & Mounier, R. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.10.10.613648 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…muscle contractions are known to increase the metabolic demand of the muscle, that depending on the type and duration of the stimulation results in a depletion of energy stores in the muscle, and the release of metabolic (by)products (Domin et al., 2021; Egan & Zierath, 2013; Hargreaves, 2020).”
The Potential Protective Mechanisms of Exercise-Responsive Molecules in Chronic Kidney Disease
Chang, J. S. (2024) · Exercise Science · doi:10.15857/ksep.2024.00472
Liu, Y., Yang, S., Wang, Z., & Wu, Y. (2025) · Physiology International · doi:10.1556/2060.2025.00527
Role of ACTN3 R577X Polymorphism in Mitochondrial Myokines After Endurance Exercise
Manoel, L. A. D. S., de Fontes-Junior, A. A., Sierra, A., de Menezes, D. C., Zocoler, C. A. S., Lima, G., Barbeiro, H. V., de Souza, H. P., Pesquero, J., & Cury‐Boaventura, M. F. (2026) · Clinical bioenergetics · doi:10.3390/clinbioenerg2010002
“…monocyte protein-1 (MCP-1), follistatin (FSTL), angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4), apelin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), fractalkine CX3CL1 (FKN), irisin, leukemia inhibitor (LIF), meteorin-like protein (Metrnl), myostatin and SPARC, musclin, myonectin, and angiogenin [19,20].”
Mallard, J. (2022) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/f8b2c96bzc4cdz4249z8e59z5f87c7ca2462
Kurose, S., Onishi, K., Miyauchi, T., Takahashi, K., & Kimura, Y. (2026) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.70930
“Exercise is a key regulator of myokine secretion, with both acute and chronic exercise shown to modulate circulating myokine levels and influence metabolic health (Domin et al., 2021).”
Myokines, the Growing Basis for “Exercise Is Medicine”
Heitkamp, H. (2026) · Health · doi:10.4236/health.2026.188047
Skorkina, M., Bobylev, A. G., Belova, D., Bravyy, Y. R., Mutig, K., & Lebedeva, S. A. (2026) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom16101536
“IL15 mRNA has been detected in multiple organs in addition to skeletal muscle, including the placenta [63], kidneys [8], heart [64], brain [65–67], bone marrow, thymus, lungs, and liver [68].”
- Authors
- Domin, R., Dadej, D., Pytka, M., Zybek-Kocik, A., Ruchała, M., & Guzik, P.
- Affiliations
- Poznan University of Medical Sciences (PL)
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Poznań, Poland
- Corresponding author
- Domin, Remigiusz
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-01-31
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 1261
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7908590
- OpenAlex
- W3127246761
- Cited by
- 79
- References
- 159
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 7
- FWCI
- 1.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- myokines, hepatokines, myostatin, follistatin, decorin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, FGF21, IL-15, interleukin-6, irisin, endurance exercise, resistance training, exercise training, cytokine receptors, energy homeostasis, inflammation, healthy individuals
- MeSH terms
- Adipose Tissue, Humans, Exercise, Interleukin-6, Cytokines, Muscle, Skeletal
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