Dual n-back training increases the capacity of the focus of attention
Abstract
Working memory (WM) training has been reported to benefit abilities as diverse as fluid intelligence (Jaeggi et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105:6829-6833, 2008) and reading comprehension (Chein & Morrison, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17:193-199, 2010), but transfer is not always observed (for reviews, see Morrison & Chein, Psychonomics Bulletin & Review, 18:46-60, 2011; Shipstead et al., Psychological Bulletin, 138:628-654, 2012). In contrast, recent WM training studies have consistently reported improvement on the trained tasks. The basis for these training benefits has received little attention, however, and it is not known which WM components and/or processes are being improved. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to investigate five possible mechanisms underlying the effects of adaptive dual n-back training on working memory (i.e., improvements in executive attention, updating, and focus switching, as well as increases in the capacity of the focus of attention and short-term memory). In addition to a no-contact control group, the present study also included an active control group whose members received nonadaptive training on the same task. All three groups showed significant improvements on the n-back task from pretest to posttest, but adaptive training produced larger improvements than did nonadaptive training, which in turn produced larger improvements than simply retesting. Adaptive, but not nonadaptive, training also resulted in improvements on an untrained running span task that measured the capacity of the focus of attention. No other differential improvements were observed, suggesting that increases in the capacity of the focus of attention underlie the benefits of adaptive dual n-back training.
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N-back training probably improves performance on other tasks that resemble the n-back task in design and structure.
“Training on n-back is likely to lead to improvements on other tasks that are similar in design and structure to the n-back task, as demonstrated by Lilienthal, Tamez, Shelton, Myerson, and Hale (2013) and von Bastian and Eschen (2015).”
From Reevaluating the effectiveness of n-back training on transfer through the Bayesian lens: Support for the null (2016) · cites this paper as Lilienthal, Tamez, Shelton, Myerson, and Hale (2013)
Transfer to sequencing and/or complex WM tasks has been reported by some N-back training studies but not others.
“Transfer to sequencing and/or complex WM tasks has been reported by some57–63, but not other N-back training studies58,64–70.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [58]
Other research has reported no evidence of transfer of training to short-term memory or working-memory measures.
“Other research has also reported no evidence of transfer of training to SHORT-TERM MEMORY or working-memory measures (Lilienthal, Tamez, Shelton, Myerson, & Hale, 2013;Schwab et al., 2015;Sprenger et al., 2013).”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Lilienthal, Tamez, Shelton, Myerson, & Hale, 2013
The n-back task is probably the most widely used in WMU training programs.
“The n-back task is probably the most widely used in WMU training programs (e.g., [9–11]), and the arithmetical updating task has already been used in a previous training study and shown to produce specific training gains, at least [29].”
From Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
Our results using two updating paradigms are compatible with reports that performance improvements on one WM measure do not lead to gains on another type of WM task.
“Our results using two updating paradigms are therefore compatible with reports that performance improvements on one WM measure do not lead to gains on another type of WM task (e.g., [9, 11, 17]).”
From Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
Our results reflect those of other studies reporting no transfer effects to complex WM tasks.
“Our results reflect those of other studies reporting no transfer effects to complex WM tasks [8, 9, 11, 27].”
From Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
Training on a specific working memory task can improve performance on untrained working memory tasks.
“WM training on a given task can transfer to improvements in untrained working memory tasks (Blacker et al. 2017; Lilienthal et al. 2013; Chein and Morrison 2010; Borella et al. 2010)”
From Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training (2020) · cites this paper as Lilienthal et al. 2013
Studies reporting performance gains in digit span and reading span after dual n-back training suggest that training increases ability on untrained, closely related tasks (near transfer effects).
“Studies reporting performance gains in tasks such as digit span and reading span [6–8, 10,12] after dual n-back training suggest that training increases ability not only on the trained task (i.e., practice effects), but also on untrained, closely related tasks (near transfer effects).”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
Dual n-back working memory training has been associated with improvement on similar dual n-back tasks, other tasks of working memory, and fluid intelligence.
“Dual n-back working memory training has been associated with improvement on similar dual n-back tasks, other tasks of working memory, and the broader construct of fluid intelligence [5–18]”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
Other studies demonstrated improvement in near-transfer tasks although no improvement in far transfer.
“Other studies demonstrated improvement in near-transfer tasks although no improvement in far transfer [6,8,10,12,15].”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
Effects of dual n-back training were not previously investigated in a middle age-range sample.
“Although near and far transfer effects, albeit mixed, have been demonstrated after dual n-back training in younger (e.g., under 30) and older (e.g., over 60) age groups [5–12,15,17,18] effects were not previously investigated in a middle age-range sample.”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
Near and far transfer effects, albeit mixed, have been demonstrated after dual n-back training in younger (e.g., under 30) and older (e.g., over 60) age groups.
“Although near and far transfer effects, albeit mixed, have been demonstrated after dual n-back training in younger (e.g., under 30) and older (e.g., over 60) age groups [5–12,15,17,18] effects were not previously investigated in a middle age-range sample.”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
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Feasibility of using a computer-assisted working memory training program for healthy older women
Ghavidel, F., Fadardi, J. S., Gatto, N. M., Sedaghat, F., & Tabibi, Z. (2020) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-020-00975-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Pan, D., Daotuan, W. A. N. G., & Li, X. (2018) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2018.01105 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Do attention and memory explain the performance of software developers?
Piantadosi, V., Scalabrino, S., Serebrenik, A., Novielli, N., & Oliveto, R. (2023) · Empirical Software Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10664-023-10316-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Mothersill, D., Dillon, R., Hargreaves, A., Castorina, M., Furey, E., Fagan, A. J., Meaney, J. F., Fitzmaurice, B., Hallahan, B. P., McDonald, C., et al. (2018) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.13976 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Impact of Music on Working Memory in Rwanda
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Joëssel, F., Cunningham, E. G., & Green, C. S. (2025) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-025-00316-6 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Age-related effects on online and offline learning in visuo-spatial working memory
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ERPs in Controls and ADHD Patients During Dual N-Back Task
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Impact of strategy use during N-Back training in older adults
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Prior Prognostic Expectations as a Potential Predictor in Neurofeedback Training
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Peer-reviewed working memory training
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Performance and Workload Trends: The Effects of Repeated Exposure to “High” Demand Tasks
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Retraining Dorsal Visual Pathways Improves Cognitive Skills After a Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
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Mao, X., Huang, Q., Shi, J., Yu, Y., & Li, A.-M. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1697078 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
How does working memory training effect on memory performance in young people
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On the cognitive and neuronal effects and mechanisms of working memory training
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Working memory training does not improve executive functioning or fluid intelligencePreprint
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The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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- Authors
- Lilienthal, L., Tamez, E., Shelton, J. T., Myerson, J., & Hale, S.
- Affiliations
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Lee University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lilienthal, Lindsey
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2012-11-27
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 135-141
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2151290103
- Cited by
- 112
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6
- FWCI
- 10.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- working memory training, adaptive training, attentional focus, executive attention, updating, short-term memory, transfer of training, fluid intelligence, reading comprehension
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Practice, Psychological, Transfer, Psychology
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