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Retrieval-Based Learning: A Decade of Progress
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In the citing paper
“The benefits of retrieval practice are thought to occur via an episodic context account.”
From Does Retrieval Practice Protect Memory Against Stress? A Meta-Analysis (2025) · cites this paper as Karpicke, 2017
In the citing paper
“Under the episodic context account, contextual cues become bound to memory traces and are reinstated each time an item is retrieved from memory, thereby strengthening the memory traces learned with each retrieval (Karpicke et al., 2014; Karpicke, 2017).”
From Does Retrieval Practice Protect Memory Against Stress? A Meta-Analysis (2025) · cites this paper as Karpicke, 2017
In the citing paper
“This also aligns with the context-dependent explanation of retrieval practice, where the repeated binding of contextual cues to the memory trace strengthens the memory and makes it easier to access, thereby potentially making it less vulnerable to the detrimental effects of stress (Karpicke et al., 2014; Karpicke, 2017).”
From Does Retrieval Practice Protect Memory Against Stress? A Meta-Analysis (2025) · cites this paper as Karpicke, 2017
In the citing paper
“Karpicke (2017; see also Karpicke et al. 2014b), who suggests that the benefit of initial tests (without feedback) can only be seen when the learner is reasonably successful on the initial test.”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Karpicke 2017
In the citing paper
“As a result, the confound in number of exposures masks the advantage that is present for the items that are successfully retrieved (see also Karpicke 2017).”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Karpicke 2017
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Daily Online Testing in Large Classes: Boosting College Performance while Reducing Achievement Gaps
Pennebaker, J. W., Gosling, S. D., & Ferrell, J. D. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079774 · Cited by 114
Long-term effects of testing on the recall of nontested materials
Chan, J. C. K. (2009) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210903405737 · Cited by 114
Storm, B. C., Bjork, R. A., & Storm, J. C. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.38.2.244 · Cited by 113
Integrating Cognitive Science and Technology Improves Learning in a STEM Classroom
Butler, A. C., Marsh, E. J., Slavinsky, J. P., & Baraniuk, R. G. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9256-4 · Cited by 112
A Test of the Testing Effect: Acquiring Problem‐Solving Skills From Worked Examples
van Gog, T., & Kester, L. (2012) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12002 · Cited by 107
Examining the efficiency of schedules of distributed retrieval practice
Pyc, M. A., & Rawson, K. A. (2007) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03192925 · Cited by 104
Retrieval attempts enhance learning, but retrieval success (versus failure) does not matter.
Kornell, N., Klein, P. J., & Rawson, K. A. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0037850 · Cited by 100
A Classroom Study on the Relationship Between Student Achievement and Retrieval-Enhanced Learning
Carpenter, S. K., Lund, T. J. S., Coffman, C. R., Armstrong, P. I., Lamm, M. H., & Reason, R. D. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9311-9 · Cited by 99
Middleton, E. L., Schwartz, M. F., Rawson, K. A., & Garvey, K. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000091 · Cited by 97
Adult attachment style and cortisol responses in women in late pregnancy
Costa-Martins, J. M., Moura‐Ramos, M., Cascais, M. J., da Silva, C. F., Costa-Martins, H., Pereira, M., Coelho, R. C., & Tavares, J. (2016) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-016-0105-8 · Cited by 96
Material-appropriate processing: A contextualist approach to reading and studying strategies
McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (1989) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf01326639 · Cited by 95
Retrieval practice over the long term: Should spacing be expanding or equal-interval?
Kang, S. H. K., Lindsey, R. V., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0636-z · Cited by 90
Enhancing visuospatial learning: The benefit of retrieval practice
Kang, S. H. K. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.38.8.1009 · Cited by 89
Retrieval-based learning: The need for guided retrieval in elementary school children
Karpicke, J. D., Blunt, J. R., Smith, M. A., & Karpicke, S. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.07.008 · Cited by 89
Self-citationExpanding retrieval practice: An effective aid to preschool children's learning
Fritz, C. O., Morris, P. E., Nolan, D., & Singleton, J. (2006) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210600823595 · Cited by 87
Balota, D. A., Duchek, J. M., & Logan, J. M. (2007) · Cited by 86
Tse, C., & Pu, X. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0029190 · Cited by 85
Taking the testing effect beyond the college freshman: Benefits for lifelong learning.
Meyer, A. N. D., & Logan, J. M. (2013) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0030890 · Cited by 85
Neural correlates of testing effects in vocabulary learning
van den Broek, G. S. E., Takashima, A., Segers, E., Fernández, G., & Verhoeven, L. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.03.071 · Cited by 85
Retrieval-Based Learning: Positive Effects of Retrieval Practice in Elementary School Children
Karpicke, J. D., Blunt, J. R., & Smith, M. A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00350 · Cited by 82
Self-citationThe Effect of Retrieval Practice in Primary School Vocabulary Learning
Goossens, N. A. M. C., Camp, G., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Tabbers, H. K. (2013) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2956 · Cited by 82
Tse, C.-S., Balota, D. A., & Roediger, H. L. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0019933 · Cited by 80
Expectancy of an open-book test decreases performance on a delayed closed-book test
Agarwal, P. K., & Roediger, H. L., III (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.613840 · Cited by 80
When additional multiple-choice lures aid versus hinder later memory
Butler, A. C., Marsh, E. J., Goode, M. K., & Roediger, H. L., III (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1239 · Cited by 79
Testing the limits of testing effects using completion tests
Hinze, S. R., & Wiley, J. (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.560121 · Cited by 78
Optimizing multiple-choice tests as tools for learning
Little, J. L., & Bjork, E. L. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0452-8 · Cited by 78
Bouwmeester, S., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2011) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2011.02.005 · Cited by 77
Tests enhance retention and transfer of spatial learning
Carpenter, S. K., & Kelly, J. W. (2012) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-012-0221-2 · Cited by 77
Leahy, W., Hanham, J., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9296-4 · Cited by 77
Congleton, A. R., & Rajaram, S. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0168-y · Cited by 75
van Gog, T., Kester, L., Dirkx, K., Hoogerheide, V., Boerboom, J., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9297-3 · Cited by 75
Hinze, S. R., & Rapp, D. N. (2014) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3032 · Cited by 71
The role of episodic context in retrieval practice effects.
Whiffen, J. W., & Karpicke, J. D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000379 · Cited by 71
Self-citationA contextual framework for understanding when difficulties are desirable
Daniel, M. A. M., & Butler, A. C. (2011) · Cited by 71
Rawson, K. A., Vaughn, K. E., & Carpenter, S. K. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0477-z · Cited by 70
Sumowski, J. F., Chiaravalloti, N. D., & DeLuca, J. (2010) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0017533 · Cited by 66
Kuepper-Tetzel, C. E., Kapler, I. V., & Wiseheart, M. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0394-1 · Cited by 65
Mnemonic benefits of retrieval practice at short retention intervals
Rowland, C. A., & DeLosh, E. L. (2015) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2014.889710 · Cited by 64
Lemogne, C., Bergouignan, L., Piolino, P., Jouvent, R., Allilaire, J., & Fossati, P. (2008) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210802438466 · Cited by 63
The benefit of retrieval practice over elaborative restudy in primary school vocabulary learning
Goossens, N. A. M. C., Camp, G., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Tabbers, H. K., & Zwaan, R. A. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.05.003 · Cited by 63
Does testing with feedback help grade-school children learn key concepts in science?
Lipko, A. R., Dunlosky, J. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.04.002 · Cited by 63
The importance of constructive comprehension processes in learning from tests
Hinze, S. R., Wiley, J., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2013) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2013.03.002 · Cited by 61
Establishing and explaining the testing effect in free recall for young children.
Lipowski, S. L., Pyc, M. A., Dunlosky, J. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035202 · Cited by 59
The negative testing effect and multifactor account.
Peterson, D. J., & Mulligan, N. W. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0031337 · Cited by 59
Learning Adinkra symbols: The effect of testing
Coppens, L. C., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2011.507188 · Cited by 58
Using testing to improve learning after severe traumatic brain injury.
Pastötter, B., Weber, J., & Bäuml, K. T. (2013) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0031797 · Cited by 57
The role of mediator strength in learning from retrieval
Carpenter, S. K., & Yeung, K. L. (2016) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2016.06.008 · Cited by 57
Ecological Validity of the Testing Effect: The Use of Daily Quizzes in Introductory Psychology
Batsell, W. R., Perry, J. L., Hanley, E., & Hostetter, A. B. (2017) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628316677492 · Cited by 56
Keresztes, A., Kaiser, D., Kovács, G., & Racsmány, M. (2014) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bht158 · Cited by 56
Retrieval practice and elaborative encoding benefit memory in younger and older adults.
Coane, J. H. (2013) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2013.04.001 · Cited by 56
Normal forgetting of verbal lists as a function of prior testing.
Slamecka, N. J., & Katsaiti, L. T. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.14.4.716 · Cited by 55
Memorial consequences of answering SAT II questions.
Marsh, E. J., Agarwal, P. K., & Roediger, H. L. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/a0014721 · Cited by 55
Maddox, G. B., Balota, D. A., Coane, J. H., & Duchek, J. M. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0022942 · Cited by 53
Guided retrieval practice of educational materials using automated scoring.
Grimaldi, P. J., & Karpicke, J. D. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033208 · Cited by 52
Self-citationRetrieval practice: A simple strategy for improving memory after traumatic brain injury
Sumowski, J. F., WOOD, H. G., Chiaravalloti, N. D., Wylie, G. R., Lengenfelder, J., & DeLuca, J. (2010) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617710001128 · Cited by 51
The effects of free recall testing on subsequent source memory
Brewer, G. A., Marsh, R. L., Meeks, J. T., Clark-Foos, A. G., & Hicks, J. L. (2010) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211003702163 · Cited by 48
Lechuga, M. T., Tudela, J. M. O., & Gómez‐Ariza, C. J. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.08.002 · Cited by 47
Retrieval Practice Benefits Deductive Inference
Eglington, L. G., & Kang, S. H. K. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9386-y · Cited by 47
Reflections on the Resurgence of Interest in the Testing Effect
Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2018) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617718873 · Cited by 46
Self-citationMemory trace for figures in recall and recognition
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Rowland, C. A., & DeLosh, E. L. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0625-2 · Cited by 45
The costs and benefits of testing text materials
Little, J. L., Storm, B. C., & Bjork, E. L. (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.569725 · Cited by 44
Negative and positive testing effects in terms of item-specific and relational information.
Mulligan, N. W., & Peterson, D. J. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000056 · Cited by 44
The Status of the Testing Effect for Complex Materials: Still a Winner
Rawson, K. A. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9308-4 · Cited by 43
Test-enhanced learning in third-grade children
Jaeger, A., Eisenkraemer, R. E., & Stein, L. M. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.963030 · Cited by 42
Benefits of accumulating versus diminishing cues in recall
Finley, J. R., Benjamin, A. S., Hays, M. J., Bjork, R. A., & Kornell, N. (2011) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2011.01.006 · Cited by 42
Testing enhances learning across a range of episodic memory abilities
Pan, S. C., Pashler, H., Potter, Z. E., & Rickard, T. C. (2015) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2015.04.001 · Cited by 41
Retrieval practice: the lack of transfer to deductive inferences
Tran, R., Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0646-x · Cited by 40
Memorial consequences of testing school-aged children
Marsh, E. J., Fazio, L. K., & Goswick, A. E. (2012) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.708757 · Cited by 38
Do testing effects change over time? Insights from immediate and delayed retrieval speed
van den Broek, G. S. E., Segers, E., Takashima, A., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2013) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.831455 · Cited by 38
Testing enhances subsequent learning in older but not in younger elementary school children
Aslan, A., & Bäuml, K.-H. (2015) · University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) · doi:10.5283/epub.33113 · Cited by 38
Appearance and reality: Does a recognition test really improve subsequent recall and recognition?
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INTRICACIES OF SPACED RETRIEVAL: A Resolution
Roediger, H. L., III (2011) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203842539-7 · Cited by 36
Integrative Cognitive Science with Innovative Teaching in STEM Disciplines
McDaniel, M. A. (2014) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k75q4t1x · Cited by 36
The Clicker Technique: Cultivating Efficient Teaching and Successful Learning
Anderson, L. S., Healy, A. F., Kole, J. A., & Bourne, L. E. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2899 · Cited by 33
Does Providing Prompts During Retrieval Practice Improve Learning?
Smith, M. A., Blunt, J. R., Whiffen, J. W., & Karpicke, J. D. (2016) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3227 · Cited by 33
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Retrieval practice is a robust memory aid for memory-impaired patients with MS
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Aging, spaced retrieval, and inflexible memory performance
Bishara, A. J., & Jacoby, L. L. (2008) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.15.1.52 · Cited by 28
Elaborative retrieval: Do semantic mediators improve memory?
Lehman, M., & Karpicke, J. D. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000267 · Cited by 27 · cited 6×
“Other studies have compared the effects of retrieval practice to the effects of elaborating on target words by generating several associated words that are related to the target word (Goossens et al., 2014b; Lehman and Karpicke, 2016; Lehman et al., 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationFriedman, R. B., Sullivan, K. L., Snider, S. F., Luta, G., & Jones, K. T. (2016) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000318 · Cited by 27
Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Improving self-regulated learning with a retrieval practice intervention.
Ariel, R., & Karpicke, J. D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000133 · Cited by 146
Self-citationPracticing Retrieval Facilitates Learning
McDermott, K. B. (2021) · Annual review of psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-051019 · Cited by 113
Learning-by-Teaching Without Audience Presence or Interaction: When and Why Does it Work?
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Metadata
- Authors
- Karpicke, J. D.
- Affiliations
- Purdue University West Lafayette (US)
- Corresponding author
- Karpicke, Jeffrey D.
- ORCID
- Karpicke, Jeffrey D.
- Venue
- Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference
- Publisher
- Elsevier
- Published
- 2017
- Pages
- 487-514
- OpenAlex
- W2604785529
- Cited by
- 223
- References
- 219
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 49.72
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Elsevier eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Grantee Submission
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- retrieval practice, educational psychology, learning outcomes, transfer of learning
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