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Sensitive periods in human social development: New insights from research on oxytocin, synchrony, and high-risk parenting
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Sensitive periods (SP) in behavioral development appeared in the biological sciences during the first decade of the 20th century, and research in animal models beginning in the 1950s provide terminology and evidence for SP effects. This paper proposes a rigorous program for human SP research and argues that the complexity of the human brain and variability of the human ecology necessitate that SP effects must be studied in humans, employ longitudinal designs starting at birth, test mechanism-based hypotheses based on animal studies that manipulate early environments, and utilize high-risk conditions as “natural experiments.” In light of research on the molecular basis of critical periods and their sequential cascades, it is proposed that the oxytocin (OT) system, an ancient and integrative system that cross-talks with the stress, reward, immune, and brain stem mediated homeostatic systems and supports mammalian sociality, plays a unique role in experience-dependent plasticity that buttresses SP effects due to its (a) dendritic mode of release leading to autoregulated functioning primed by early experience, (b) pulsatile pattern of activity, and (c) special role in neural plasticity at the molecular and network assembly levels. Synchrony, the coordination of biology and behavior during social contact, is suggested as a mechanism by which SP exert their effect on OT functionality, the social brain, and adult sociality. Findings from four high-risk birth cohorts, each followed repeatedly from birth to 10 years, provide unique “natural experiments” for human SP research based on specific programs in animal models. These include prematurity (maternal proximity), multiple birth (peer rearing), postpartum depression (low licking and grooming), and chronic unpredictable trauma (maternal rotation, variable foraging demands). In each cohort, hypotheses are based on the missing environmental component during SP, and findings on social synchrony, OT functionality, stress response, emotion regulation, and mental health accord with the multilevel and dynamic principles of developmental psychopathology. The results on the potential for reparation versus chronicity following early deprivation highlight a flexible conceptualization of resilience based on human SP research. Consideration of SP effects at the molecular, endocrine, brain, and behavioral levels and in relation to the neural plasticity and multifinality of human social functions may assist in fine-tuning early detection and the construction of targeted individualized interventions.
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“Social synchrony experienced during early sensitive periods provides the foundation for the expression of synchrony in later attachment bonds throughout life19,23.”
From Brain-to-Brain Synchrony during Naturalistic Social Interactions (2017) · cites this paper as [23]
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Self-citationRoth, T. L., & David Sweatt, J. (2011) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02282.x · Cited by 246
Feldman, R., Weller, A., Sirota, L., & Eidelman, A. I. (2003) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.1.94 · Cited by 245
Self-citationThe Effects of Varying Environmental Demands on Maternal and Infant Behavior
Rosenblum, L. A., & Paully, G. S. (1984) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1984.tb00293.x · Cited by 242
Weisman, O., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2012) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.011 · Cited by 240
Self-citationOxytocin stimulates adult neurogenesis even under conditions of stress and elevated glucocorticoids
Leuner, B., Caponiti, J., & Gould, E. (2011) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20947 · Cited by 237
Marital behavior, oxytocin, vasopressin, and wound healing
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Atzil, S., Hendler, T., Zagoory-Sharon, O., Winetraub, Y., & Feldman, R. (2012) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.06.008 · Cited by 225
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Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Infants and Young Children Exposed to War-Related Trauma
Feldman, R., & Vengrober, A. (2011) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.03.001 · Cited by 217
Self-citationOxytocin induces morphological plasticity in the adult hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system
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A Further Study of Infantile Handling and Adult Avoidance Learning1
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Feldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2003) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.10126 · Cited by 210 · cited 2×
“…comparable between groups prior to KC, maternal contact accelerated maturation of the autonomic nervous system, and infants who received contact had higher RSA, indicating a more mature system that enables a better foundation for the development of regulatory capacities (Feldman & Eidelman, 2003b).”
Self-citationDeconstructing sociality, social evolution and relevant nonapeptide functions
Goodson, J. L. (2013) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.12.005 · Cited by 206
Oxytocin mediates early experience-dependent cross-modal plasticity in the sensory cortices
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The Effects of Varying Environmental Demands on Maternal and Infant Behavior
Rosenblum, L. A., & Paully, G. S. (1984) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129854 · Cited by 198
Feldman, R. (2007) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/0002-9432.77.4.582 · Cited by 194
Self-citationFeldman, R. (2010) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616730903282472 · Cited by 192
Self-citationFeldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2008) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00761.x · Cited by 190
Self-citationFeldman, R., Bamberger, E., & Kanat‐Maymon, Y. (2013) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2013.782650 · Cited by 185
Self-citationDevelopmental Perspectives on Oxytocin and Vasopressin
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Oxytocin alleviates the neuroendocrine and cytokine response to bacterial endotoxin in healthy men
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Oxytocin Facilitation of Maternal Behavior in Sheepa
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Wired for behaviors: from development to function of innate limbic system circuitry
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Parent-infant synchrony and the social emotional development of triplets
Feldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1133 · Cited by 180
Self-citationThe main olfactory system and social learning in mammals
Sánchez-Andrade, G., & Kendrick, K. M. (2008) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.12.021 · Cited by 175
Maestripieri, D., Hoffman, C. L., Anderson, G. M., Carter, C. S., & Higley, J. D. (2009) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.12.016 · Cited by 174
Hormonal Changes in Mammalian Fathers
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Chapter 8 Peripartum plasticity within the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis
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Feldman, R., & Masalha, S. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017415 · Cited by 165
Self-citationNeural plasticity in fathers of human infants
Kim, P., Rigo, P., Mayes, L. C., Feldman, R., Leckman, J. F., & Swain, J. E. (2014) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2014.933713 · Cited by 164
Self-citationSocial Recovery by Isolation-Reared Monkeys
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Oxytocin administration, salivary testosterone, and father–infant social behavior
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Self-citationOxytocin, cortisol, and triadic family interactions
Gordon, I., Zagoory-Sharon, O., Leckman, J. F., & Feldman, R. (2010) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.08.008 · Cited by 158
Self-citationFatherhood affects dendritic spines and vasopressin V1a receptors in the primate prefrontal cortex
Kozorovitskiy, Y., Hughes, M., Lee, K., & Gould, E. (2006) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1753 · Cited by 158
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Bales, K. L., & Carter, C. S. (2003) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.117.4.854 · Cited by 155
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The Importance of Early Experiences for Neuro-Affective Development
Tottenham, N. (2013) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2013_254 · Cited by 142
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Evolving nonapeptide mechanisms of gregariousness and social diversity in birds
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The EPIIC hypothesis: Intrapartum effects on the neonatal epigenome and consequent health outcomes
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Peripheral Pulses of Oxytocin Increase Partner Preferences in Female, but Not Male, Prairie Voles
Cushing, B. S., & Carter, C. S. (2000) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1006/hbeh.1999.1558 · Cited by 136
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Wallace Stevens: The Poems of Our Climate
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Chapter 17 Neuroendocrine and emotional changes in the post-partum period
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Some Pathological Processes Set in Train by Early Mother-Child Separation
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The Importance of Early Experiences for Neuro-Affective Development
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On aims and methods of Ethology
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On the origins of background emotions: From affect synchrony to symbolic expression.
Feldman, R. (2007) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.3.601 · Cited by 125
Self-citationTransitions in sensitive period attachment learning in infancy: The role of corticosterone
Sullivan, R. M., & Holman, P. J. (2009) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.010 · Cited by 124
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Oxytocin and vasopressin support distinct configurations of social synchrony
Apter-Levi, Y., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2014) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2013.10.052 · Cited by 116
Self-citationOxytocin mediates acquisition of maternally associated odor preferences in preweanling rat pups.
Nelson, E. E., & Panksepp, J. (1996) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.110.3.583 · Cited by 113
Oxytocin mediates acquisition of maternally associated odor preferences in preweanling rat pups.
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Laviola, G., & Terranova, M. L. (1998) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(98)00021-9 · Cited by 109
Feldman, R., Vengrober, A., Eidelman-Rothman, M., & Zagoory‐Sharon, O. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579413000291 · Cited by 109
Self-citationMice Reared with Rats: Modification of Behavior by Early Experience with Another Species
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The brain basis of social synchrony
Atzil, S., Hendler, T., & Feldman, R. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst105 · Cited by 106
Self-citationSleep-Wake Transitions in Premature Neonates Predict Early Development
Weisman, O., Magori‐Cohen, R., Louzoun, Y., Eidelman, A. I., & Feldman, R. (2011) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2011-0047 · Cited by 104
Self-citationCD38 and its role in oxytocin secretion and social behavior
Higashida, H., Yokoyama, S., Kikuchi, M., & Munesue, T. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.12.011 · Cited by 98
Oxytocin Gene Polymorphisms Influence Human Dopaminergic Function in a Sex-Dependent Manner
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Twin children's language development
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Problems in the bio-psychology of social organization.
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Infantile experience and the maturation of the pituitary adrenal axis
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Physiological Responses of Infant Rats to Separation from Their Mothers
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Schneiderman, I., Kanat‐Maymon, Y., Ebstein, R. P., & Feldman, R. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst142 · Cited by 90
Self-citationThe biochemistry of love: an oxytocin hypothesis
Carter, C. S., & Porges, S. W. (2012) · EMBO Reports · doi:10.1038/embor.2012.191 · Cited by 90
Ancient neuromodulation by vasopressin/oxytocin-related peptides
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Critical Periods for the Effects of Infantile Experience on Adult Learning
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Salubrious effects of oxytocin on social stress-induced deficits
Smith, A. S., & Wang, Z. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.11.010 · Cited by 88
Feldman, R., Vengrober, A., & Ebstein, R. P. (2014) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2014.6 · Cited by 87
Self-citationKojima, S., Stewart, R., Demas, G. E., & Alberts, J. R. (2012) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2012.02280.x · Cited by 85
Feldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2005) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1137 · Cited by 85
Self-citationEFFECTS OF MATERNAL FACTORS UPON GROWTH AND BEHAVIOR OF THE RAT1
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Self-citationHormonal Mechanisms of Mate Choice
Adkins–Regan, E. (1998) · American Zoologist · doi:10.1093/icb/38.1.166 · Cited by 73
Weisman, O., Granat, A., Gilboa‐Schechtman, E., Singer, M., Gordon, I., Azulay, H., Kuint, J., & Feldman, R. (2010) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-010-0169-z · Cited by 71
Self-citationOxytocin administration alters HPA reactivity in the context of parent–infant interaction
Weisman, O., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2013) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.06.006 · Cited by 70
Self-citationMechanisms of social connection: From brain to group.
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Self-citationEmergent Evolution and the Development of Societies.
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Evaluating theories of bird song learning: implications for future directions
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
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- Hofer, 1995, Hidden regulators, Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental and Clinical Perspectives, 59, 203
- Lorenz, 1950, Physiological mechanisms in animal behaviour
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Neurobiology of Human Attachments
Feldman, R. (2017) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.007 · Cited by 839
Self-citationThe adaptive human parental brain: implications for children's social development
Feldman, R. (2015) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2015.04.004 · Cited by 419
Self-citationBrain-to-Brain Synchrony during Naturalistic Social Interactions
Kinreich, S., Djalovski, A., Kraus, L., Louzoun, Y., & Feldman, R. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-17339-5 · Cited by 402
Self-citationWhat is resilience: an affiliative neuroscience approach
Feldman, R. (2020) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20729 · Cited by 326
Self-citationThe Neurobiology of Postpartum Anxiety and Depression
Pawluski, J. L., Lonstein, J. S., & Fleming, A. S. (2017) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2016.11.009 · Cited by 325
Metadata
- Authors
- Feldman, R.
- Affiliations
- Bar-Ilan University (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Feldman, Ruth
- ORCID
- Feldman, Ruth
- Venue
- Development and Psychopathology
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2015-05
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 369-395
- ISSN
- 0954-5794 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-2198
- OpenAlex
- W1924288196
- Cited by
- 271
- References
- 216
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 11
- FWCI
- 3.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Development and Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Keywords
- sensitive period, critical period, oxytocin, social synchrony, preterm birth, multiple births, postpartum depression, chronic unpredictable mild stress, social brain, neuroplasticity, developmental psychopathology, resilience, early deprivation, social development (developmental psychology), natural experiment
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Animals, Brain, Critical Period, Psychological, Female, Humans, Neuronal Plasticity, Oxytocin, Play and Playthings, Social Behavior, Parenting
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