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Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study
Abstract
The authors investigated the emergence of gender differences in clinical depression and the overall development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood among members of a complete birth cohort using a prospective longitudinal approach with structured diagnostic interviews administered 5 times over the course of 10 years. Small gender differences in depression (females greater than males) first began to emerge between the ages of 13 and 15. However, the greatest increase in this gender difference occurred between ages 15 and 18. Depression rates and accompanying gender differences for a university student subsample were no different than for a nonuniversity subsample. There was no gender difference for depression recurrence or for depression symptom severity. The peak increase in both overall rates of depression and new cases of depression occurred between the ages of 15 and 18. Results suggest that middle-to-late adolescence (ages 15-18) may be a critical time for studying vulnerability to depression because of the higher depression rates and the greater risk for depression onset and dramatic increase in gender differences in depression during this period.
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“The specificity of prediction is particularly important when considering child gender, as boys are more likely to develop externalizing problems in childhood and girls are more likely to exhibit depression and some forms of anxiety by adolescence (Achenbach, 1991; Hankin et al., 1998; Ollendick & Yule, 1990).”
From Gender differences in caregiver emotion socialization of low-income toddlers (2010) · cites this paper as Hankin et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The female preponderance in depression is thought to emerge by ages 13–15”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Hankin et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“This conclusion has been widely accepted (the article had been cited 1693 times as of December 2016) based on findings from one sample from one region of New Zealand”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Hankin et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“Hankin and colleagues (1998) found that the gender difference in clinical depression emerged by ages 13–15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Hankin et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“It is primarily girls who account for the increase in adolescence,2,3 evidencing a 2:1 sex difference in depression that continues throughout the reproductive years.4”
From Subthreshold Symptoms of Depression in Preadolescent Girls Are Stable and Predictive of Depressive Disorders (2008) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“The period from 9 to 11 years, which we refer to as late childhood, precedes the increase in depression in females.”
From Subthreshold Symptoms of Depression in Preadolescent Girls Are Stable and Predictive of Depressive Disorders (2008) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“This is also consistent with evidence from other pre-COVID studies indicating that middle and late adolescents are likely to experience more heightened levels of distress than their younger peers [65,66].”
From Exploring the Impact of COVID-19 on Mental Health Outcomes in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review (2020) · cites this paper as [65]
In the citing paper
“Major depressive symptoms rise drastically from around 2% in early adolescence (ages 13–15) to 15% in middle adolescence (ages 15–18) (Hankin et al., 1998).”
From Neurocognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence (2015) · cites this paper as Hankin et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“Adolescence is a period of significant vulnerability to the emergence of mental health disorders.(1) In particular, it is a critical window for the emergence of internalizing (i.e., mood and anxiety) disorders, especially in girls.(2,3)”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [3]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of Otago (NZ)
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology
- Published
- 1998-02
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 128-140
- ISSN
- 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1846
- OpenAlex
- W2110531929
- Cited by
- 2,333
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 82 · 2023: 101 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 146 · 2019: 112 · 2018: 118 · 2017: 106 · 2016: 131 · 2015: 148 · 2014: 137 · 2013: 136 · 2012: 136
- FWCI
- 22.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- depression, gender differences, developmental trajectories, adolescence, early adulthood, depression onset, depression recurrence, depression severity, birth cohort, depression vulnerability, university students
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Child, Depression, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, New Zealand, Personality Development, Prospective Studies, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Cohort Studies
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