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Evolutionary mechanisms for loneliness
Open accessAbstract
Robert Weiss (1973) conceptualised loneliness as perceived social isolation, which he described as a gnawing, chronic disease without redeeming features. On the scale of everyday life, it is understandable how something as personally aversive as loneliness could be regarded as a blight on human existence. However, evolutionary time and evolutionary forces operate at such a different scale of organisation than we experience in everyday life that personal experience is not sufficient to understand the role of loneliness in human existence. Research over the past decade suggests a very different view of loneliness than suggested by personal experience, one in which loneliness serves a variety of adaptive functions in specific habitats. We review evidence on the heritability of loneliness and outline an evolutionary theory of loneliness, with an emphasis on its potential adaptive value in an evolutionary timescale.
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“However, chronic loneliness poses potential risks due to its tendency to create a self-reinforcing loneliness loop where lonely persons become increasingly distrustful of others and anticipate negative relationships, and as a result, they would prefer to avoid future social interactions.85”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [85]
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“Researchers have suggested that transient loneliness may serve an evolutionary purpose by prompting people to reestablish connections for the sake of survival and genetic continuity.85”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [85]
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“The evolutionary perspective of loneliness proposed by Cacioppo and colleagues (2006;Cacioppo, Cacioppo, & Boomsma, 2014) presents loneliness as an adaptive signal, similar to hunger and thirst, that motivates one to alter behavior in a way that will increase survival.”
From Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review (2015) · cites this paper as Cacioppo, Cacioppo, & Boomsma, 2014
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“This model proposes that loneliness operates as an aversive signal designed to promote adaptation to the vulnerabilities of being alone and motivate reconnection32.”
From Neural mechanisms of social homeostasis (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
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“© 2013 Taylor & Francis 3”
Is low mood an adaptation? Evidence for subtypes with symptoms that match precipitants
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“…28 (1) phenotypes that are related to loneliness, including depression/depressive symptomatology (Allen & Badcock, 2003; Andrews & Thompson, 2009; Keller & Nesse, 2005) and self-esteem (Kirkpatrick & Ellis, 2001; Leary & Downs, 1995) to the need to belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), but these…”
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Scaccianoce, S., Bianco, P. D., Paolone, G., Caprioli, D., Modafferi, A. M. E., Nencini, P., & Badiani, A. (2006) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2005.04.024 · Cited by 122 · cited 2×
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InfluentialAn Evolutionary‐Psychological Approach to Self‐esteem: Multiple Domains and Multiple Functions
Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Ellis, B. J. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470998557.ch16 · Cited by 119 · cited 1×
“…loneliness, including depression/depressive symptomatology (Allen & Badcock, 2003; Andrews & Thompson, 2009; Keller & Nesse, 2005) and self-esteem (Kirkpatrick & Ellis, 2001; Leary & Downs, 1995) to the need to belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), but these phenotypes are functionally (e.g., Adam,…”
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“© 2013 Taylor & Francis 3”
InfluentialSocial Isolation Affects the Development of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in Mice
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InfluentialSocial isolation alters neuroinflammatory response to stroke
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Loneliness and the Evaluation of Relational Events
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Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Loneliness in Children
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“McGuire and Clifford (2000) were the first to investigate the heritability of loneliness.”
Familial Resemblance for Loneliness
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A magnetoencephalography investigation of neural correlates for social exclusion and self-control
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“A brain scan conducted while participants performed moderately difficult math problems revealed that the brains of the future socially isolated participants were less active in the areas involved in the “executive control” of attention (Campbell et al., 2006).”
Genetic and environmental contributions to stability in loneliness throughout childhood
Bartels, M., Cacioppo, J. T., Hudziak, J. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2008) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.30608 · Cited by 83
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Sorted by citations
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Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691614568352 · Cited by 6,043
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“The effect of loneliness on physical health may be via biological, psychological and/or behavioural mechanisms, including physiological functioning, neuroendocrine effects, gene effects, immune functioning, perception of stressful events, health behaviours and sleep quality [2, 12, 13].”
BackgroundThe social determinants of mental health and disorder: evidence, prevention and recommendations
Kirkbride, J. B., Anglin, D. M., Colman, I., Dykxhoorn, J. L., Jones, P. B., Patalay, P., Pitman, A., Soneson, E., Steare, T., Wright, T., et al. (2024) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21160 · Cited by 1,619
Loneliness: clinical import and interventions
Cacioppo, S., Grippo, A. J., London, S., Goossens, L., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615570616 · Cited by 1,206
Self-citationLoneliness Across the Life Span
Qualter, P., Vanhalst, J., Harris, R., Van Roekel, E., Lodder, G., Bangee, M., Maes, M., & Verhagen, M. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615568999 · Cited by 1,080
“Cacioppo et al. (2006) posited that just as physical pain is an aversive signal that evolved to motivate a person to take action to minimize damage to one’s physical body, Perceived social isolation Reaffiliation motive activated–Motivated to reconnect Behavioral reaffiliation process activated: Withdrawal from initia…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Cacioppo, J. T., Cacioppo, S., & Boomsma, D. I.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Cacioppo, John T.
- Venue
- Cognition and Emotion
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2013-09-25
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3-21
- ISSN
- 0269-9931 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0600
- PMC
- PMC3855545
- OpenAlex
- W2109338375
- Cited by
- 576
- References
- 127
- Citations by year
- 2026: 61 · 2025: 86 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 14.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Cognition & Emotion (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (P01AG018911, R37AG033590, R01AG034052, R01AG033590)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Keywords
- loneliness, social isolation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Biological Evolution, Humans, Loneliness, Psychological Theory
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