Timing of food intake: identifying contributing factors to design effective interventions
Open accessAbstract
Observations that mistimed food intake may have adverse metabolic health effects have generated interest in personalizing food timing recommendations in interventional studies and public health strategies for the purpose of disease prevention and improving overall health. Small, controlled, and short-termed intervention studies suggest that food timing may be modified as it is presumed to be primarily regulated by choice. Identifying and evaluating social and biological factors that explain variability in food timing may determine whether changes in food timing in uncontrolled, free-living environments are sustainable in the long term, and may facilitate design of successful food timing-based interventions. Based on a comprehensive literature search, we summarize 1) cultural and environmental factors; 2) behavioral and personal preference factors; and 3) physiological factors that influence the time when people consume foods. Furthermore, we 1) highlight vulnerable populations who have been identified in experimental and epidemiological studies to be at risk of mistimed food intake and thus necessitating intervention; 2) identify currently used food timing assessment tools and their limitations; and 3) indicate other important considerations for the design of food timing interventions based on successful strategies that address timing of other lifestyle behaviors. Conclusions drawn from this overview may help design practical food timing interventions, develop feasible public health programs, and establish guidelines for effective lifestyle recommendations for prevention and treatment of adverse health outcomes attributed to mistimed food intake.
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Sex differences play a crucial role in metabolic regulation.
“Next to the circadian system and BMI, sex difference plays a crucial role in metabolic regulation (80).”
From Meal timing and its role in obesity and associated diseases (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
The Sex section reports small differences in meal timing and chronotype between men and women, but does not say that sex differences play a crucial role in metabolic regulation. The Introduction discusses metabolic effects of food timing without attributing them to sex differences. Searches for sex differences in metabolism and metabolic outcomes found no passage establishing the claimed role. (LLM, conf=0.72)
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Detection of Activities by Wireless Sensors for Daily Life Surveillance: Eating and Drinking
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The impact of meal timing on cardiometabolic syndrome indicators in shift workers
Molzof, H. E., Wirth, M. D., Burch, J. B., Shivappa, N., Hébert, J. R., Johnson, R. L., & Gamble, K. L. (2017) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2016.1259242 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Heritability of the timing of food intake
Lopez-Minguez, J., Dashti, H. S., Madrid-Valero, J. J., Madrid, J. A., Saxena, R., Scheer, F. A. J. L., Ordoñana, J. R., & Garaulet, M. (2019) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.03.002 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
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On behalf of the EFCOVAL study group, Park, M. K., Freisling, H., Huseinovic, E., Winkvist, A., Huybrechts, I., Crispim, S. P., de Vries, J. H. M., Geelen, A., Niekerk, M., et al. (2018) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-017-1388-0 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Behavioral genetics of food intake regulation in free-living humans
de Castro, J. M. (1999) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/s0899-9007(99)00114-8 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Impact of the daily meal pattern on energy balance
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Temporal Dietary Patterns Using Kernel k-Means Clustering
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Circadian Biology: Uncoupling Human Body Clocks by Food Timing
Vetter, C., & Scheer, F. A. J. L. (2017) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.057 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
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Metabolism as an integral cog in the mammalian circadian clockwork
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Caffeine transiently affects food intake at breakfast
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Disruption in daily eating-fasting and activity-rest cycles in Indian adolescents attending school
Gupta, N. J., & Khare, A. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227002 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
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Rynders, C. A., Thomas, E. A., Zaman, A., Pan, Z., Catenacci, V. A., & Melanson, E. L. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11102442 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
“, The Meal Pattern Questionnaire [76] or Night Eating Syndrome Questionnaire [77]), picture-based smartphone applications, and perhaps continuous glucose monitoring [78].”
BackgroundImpact of circadian disruption on glucose metabolism: implications for type 2 diabetes
Mason, I. C., Qian, J., Adler, G. K., & Scheer, F. A. J. L. (2020) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-019-05059-6 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
Self-citationDashti, H. S., Gómez-Abellán, P., Qian, J., Esteban, A., Morales, E., Scheer, F. A. J. L., & Garaulet, M. (2020) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa264 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“Recently, we described environmental and genetic factors that may contribute to late eating (1), but the exact characterization of late eaters undergoing weight loss remains unknown.”
BackgroundSelf-citationBaHammam, A. S., & Pirzada, R. (2023) · Clocks & Sleep · doi:10.3390/clockssleep5030034 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“In medieval England, dinner, the main meal of the day, was consumed around noon or 01:00 p.m., while supper, a smaller meal, was closer to sunset, typically between 04:00 p.m. and 06:00 p.m. [20,26].”
BackgroundInfluentialAssociations of Meal Timing and Frequency with Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome among Korean Adults
Ha, K., & Song, Y. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11102437 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“(2019) reported that a wide range of factors, such as physiological, behavioral, personal preferences, and cultural and environmental factors, influence meal timing [49].”
BackgroundEating Jet Lag: A Marker of the Variability in Meal Timing and Its Association with Body Mass Index
Zerón-Rugerio, M. F., Hernáez, Á., Porras-Loaiza, A. P., Cambras, T., & Izquierdo-Pulido, M. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11122980 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, we cannot ignore the interactions between environmental, cultural, and social factors that could be decisive factors in the choice of meal timing [1,40,41].”
BackgroundInfluentialResearch gaps and opportunities in precision nutrition: an NIH workshop report
Lee, B. Y., Ordovás, J. M., Parks, E. J., Anderson, C. A. M., Barabási, A.-Ĺ., Clinton, S. K., de la Haye, K., Duffy, V. B., Franks, P. W., Ginexi, E. M., et al. (2022) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqac237 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“nutrition outcomes, including sleep and circadian biology (274).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMartín-Rodríguez, A., Belinchón-deMiguel, P., Rubio-Zarapuz, A., Tornero-Aguilera, J. F., Martínez‐Guardado, I., Villanueva-Tobaldo, C. V., & Clemente‐Suárez, V. J. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16040571 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“Beyond immediate impacts on performance, these technological advancements contribute to a proactive approach to well-being, enabling early identification of imbalances and facilitating pre-emptive adjustments to training regimens and nutritional strategies [208].”
BackgroundTime-Restricted Eating and Metabolic Syndrome: Current Status and Future Perspectives
Świątkiewicz, I., Woźniak, A., & Taub, P. R. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13010221 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
O’Connor, S. G., Boyd, P., Bailey, C. P., Shams‐White, M., Agurs‐Collins, T., Hall, K. L., Reedy, J., Sauter, E. R., & Czajkowski, S. M. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa168 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“A gradual, scaled approach to TRE, in which the eating window decreases over time, might help to optimize longterm adherence (23, 66).”
BackgroundKeeping an eye on circadian time in clinical research and medicine
Klerman, E. B., Brager, A. J., Carskadon, M. A., Depner, C. M., Foster, F., Goel, N., Harrington, M. E., Holloway, P. M., Knauert, M. P., LeBourgeois, M. K., et al. (2022) · Clinical and Translational Medicine · doi:10.1002/ctm2.1131 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, J., Pan, Y., & Liu, F. (2023) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgad036 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Eating breakfast and avoiding late-evening snacking sustains lipid oxidation
Kelly, K., McGuinness, O. P., Buchowski, M. S., Hughey, J., Chen, H., Powers, J., Page, T. L., & Johnson, C. H. (2020) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000622 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“While many factors can influence the timing of eating in everyday life [2,3,20,21], we decided to take an experimental approach to test the metabolic consequences of a straightforward exchange of equivalent nutritional intake between early morning (8 AM) and bedtime (10 PM).”
MethodDevelopment, validation and reliability of the Chrononutrition Profile - Questionnaire
Veronda, A. C., Allison, K. C., Crosby, R. D., & Irish, L. A. (2019) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2019.1692349 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“This measure has not been validated against prospective assessments of food timing (Dashti et al. 2019).”
BackgroundEffects of Shift Work on the Eating Behavior of Police Officers on Patrol
Kosmadopoulos, A., Kervezee, L., Boudreau, P., Gonzales-Aste, F., Vujović, N., Scheer, F. A. J. L., & Boivin, D. B. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12040999 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“While shift work permits little flexibility to alter sleep–wake times, diet is a behavior that may be plausibly modified to mitigate long-term health risks [27].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMeal timing and its role in obesity and associated diseases
Peters, B., Vahlhaus, J., & Pivovarova-Ramich, O. (2024) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2024.1359772 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Next to the circadian system and BMI, sex difference plays a crucial role in metabolic regulation (80).”
BackgroundInfluentialA Growing Link between Circadian Rhythms, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Alzheimer’s Disease
Peng, X., Fan, R., Xie, L., Shi, X., Dong, K., Zhang, S., Tao, J., Xu, W., Ma, D., Chen, J., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23010504 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“A great number of studies have reported that both sleep deprivation and the mistiming of eating impair glucose tolerance and contribute to the development of diabetes [33,63,69,77].”
BackgroundWindred, D. P., Burns, A. C., Rutter, M. K., Yeung, C. H. C., Lane, J. M., Xiao, Q., Saxena, R., Cain, S. W., & Phillips, A. J. K. (2024) · The Lancet Regional Health - Europe · doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2024.100943 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Food timing can alter peripheral circadian rhythms in humans, 48 impacting glucose tolerance and adiposity, 49 and may therefore play a key role in the relationships between light, circadian disruption, and diabetes.”
BackgroundSelf-citationA qualitative exploration of facilitators and barriers of adherence to time-restricted eating
O’Connor, S. G., Boyd, P., Bailey, C. P., Nebeling, L. C., Reedy, J., Czajkowski, S. M., & Shams‐White, M. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106266 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Zerón-Rugerio, M. F., Hernáez, Á., Porras-Loaiza, A. P., Cambras, T., & Izquierdo-Pulido, M. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12030816 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Makarem, N., Sears, D. D., St‐Onge, M., Zuraikat, F. M., Gallo, L. C., Talavera, G. A., Castañeda, S. F., Lai, Y., & Aggarwal, B. (2021) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.121.022024 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Raji, O. E., Kyeremah, E., Sears, D. D., St‐Onge, M., & Makarem, N. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16142332 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“…accounts for a substantial proportion of daily caloric intake, despite the later overall timing of lunches and dinners; whereas in the USA and in central and northern European countries, dinner and after dinner snacks tend to account for the largest percentage of daily caloric intake [10,16,23].”
BackgroundInfluentialAlbalak, G., Stijntjes, M., Wijsman, C. A., Slagboom, P. E., van der Ouderaa, F. J., Mooijaart, S. P., van Heemst, D., & Noordam, R. (2021) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-021-01018-7 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
When should I eat: A circadian view on food intake and metabolic regulation
Chamorro, R., Jouffe, C., Oster, H., Uhlenhaut, N. H., & Meyhöfer, S. M. (2023) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/apha.13936 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Zerón-Rugerio, M. F., Dı́ez-Noguera, A., Izquierdo-Pulido, M., & Cambras, T. (2020) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa282 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Cabrera, J. R., Garaulet, M., Torres, J., Díaz, J. F. A., Navarro, G. M. Q., Piedra, L., Peńa, J., Cantalejo, F. R., Rangel-Zúñiga, O., Yubero-Serrano, E., et al. (2021) · Translational Research: The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.trsl.2021.11.001 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationStability of the timing of food intake at daily and monthly timescales in young adults
McHill, A. W., Hilditch, C. J., Fischer, D. R., Czeisler, C. A., Garaulet, M., Scheer, F. A. J. L., & Klerman, E. B. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77851-z · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationCircadian timing of eating and BMI among adults in the American Time Use Survey
O’Connor, S. G., Reedy, J., Graubard, B. I., Kant, A. K., Czajkowski, S. M., & Berrigan, D. A. (2021) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-021-00983-3 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Association of meal timing with body composition and cardiometabolic risk factors in young adults
Dote‐Montero, M., Acosta, F. M., Sánchez‐Delgado, G., Merchán-Ramírez, E., Amaro‐Gahete, F. J., Labayen, I., & Ruiz, J. R. (2023) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-023-03141-9 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“For instance, in recent years, emerging evidence has shown that the timing of food intake may be a relevant risk factor for obesity and cardiometabolic diseases [4, 5].”
BackgroundWang, P., Tan, Q., Zhao, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, Y., & Shi, D. (2024) · Nutrition and Diabetes · doi:10.1038/s41387-024-00266-6 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The time when meals are eaten is a signi fi cant indicator in fl uencing overall health and well-being [1 – 3].”
BackgroundMorning diurnal preference and food intake: a Mendelian randomization study
Dashti, H. S., Chen, A., Daghlas, I., & Saxena, R. (2020) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa219 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“An evening preference has been associated with the timing of food intake (7).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGioia, S., Guirette, M., Chen, A. C.-Y., Tucker, C., Gray, B. E., Vetter, C., Garaulet, M., Scheer, F. A. J. L., Saxena, R., & Dashti, H. S. (2022) · Current Developments in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/cdn/nzac002 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“The following factors were considered because of previous reports of their links with food times (6): age (15), gender (15, 16), BMI (3, 15, 17), employment status (15), morningnesseveningness scores (18), and sleep duration (6).”
InfluentialSelf-citationDashti, H. S., Jansen, E. C., Zuraikat, F. M., Dixit, S., Brown, M. K., Laposky, A. D., Broussard, J. L., Butler, M. P., Creasy, S. A., Crispim, C. A., et al. (2025) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.124.039373 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationWang, L., Allman-Farinelli, M. A., Yang, J., Taylor, J., Gemming, L., Hekler, E. B., & Rangan, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.852984 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Arredondo‐Amador, M., Zambrano, C., Kulyté, A., Luján, J., Hu, K., de Medina, F. S., Scheer, F. A. J. L., Arner, P., Rydén, M., Martínez‐Augustin, O., et al. (2020) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa492 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationBonaccio, M., Ruggiero, E., Castelnuovo, A. F. D., Martínez, C. F., Esposito, S., Costanzo, S., Cerletti, C., Donati, M. B., de Gaetano, G., & Iacoviello, L. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15061497 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Hernández‐González, T., González‐Barrio, R., Escobar, C., Madrid, J. A., Periago, M. J., Collado, M. C., Scheer, F. A. J. L., & Garaulet, M. (2021) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.202002770rr · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The intake of several food groups and dietary scores were also estimated from the 14- day dietary record of each condition, including a Mediterranean Diet Score that is comprised of 8 food groups: (1) vegetables and greens; (2) pulses (lentils, beans, chickpeas, and peas); (3) fruit and nuts; (4) dairy products (milk,…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationChrononutrition: Potential, Challenges, and Application in Managing Obesity
Fuad, S. A., Ginting, R. P., & Lee, M.-W. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26115116 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“At the individual level, metabolic responses to meal timing are modulated not only by chronotype but also by sleep quality, stress, and occupational demands, all of which are unequally distributed across populations [200,230–234].”
Disruption in daily eating-fasting and activity-rest cycles in Indian adolescents attending school
Gupta, N. J., & Khare, A. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227002 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Therefore, factual and evidence-driven descriptions of what and when people actually eat must precede human intervention studies [11, 19, 20].”
BackgroundPerspectives: on Precision Nutrition Research in Heart, Lung, and Blood Diseases and Sleep Disorders
PRATT, C. A., Brown, A. G. M., Dixit, S., Farmer, N. M., Natarajan, A. R., Boyington, J., Shi, S., Lu, Q., & Cotton, P. A. (2022) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmac053 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Dashti, H. S., Liu, C., Deng, H., Sharma, A., Payton, A., Maharani, A., & Didikoğlu, A. (2025) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-025-01035-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“No longitudinal study has yet described lifetime trajectories of mealtime patterns in older adults, and few studies have explored the broader factors in fl uencing meal timing in this population 23 .”
Self-citationKaur, S., Ng, C. M., Tang, S. Y., & Kok, E. Y. (2023) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2023.2186120 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“This finding is similar to previous studies that examined the differences between workdays and workfree days (Benedict et al. 2021; Dashti et al. 2019; Veronda and Irish 2021).”
ResultEffects of Irregular Mealtimes on Social and Eating Jet Lags among Japanese College Students
Nishimura, K., Tamari, Y., Nose, Y., Yamaguchi, H., Onodera, S., & Nagasaki, K. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15092128 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“It is important to highlight that a specific timing system (food clock) tracks predictable changes in energy status (via circulating nutrients and hormonal inputs) and drives rhythmic behavior in anticipation of food availability, adjusting the phase of the peripheral clocks but not the master clock [14,17,31,32].”
BackgroundWang, M., Yang, M., Liang, S., Wang, N., Wang, Y., Sambou, M. L., Qin, N., Zhu, M., Wang, C., Jiang, Y., et al. (2023) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsad299 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Lages, M., Carmo‐Silva, S., Barros, R., & Guarino, M. P. (2024) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s002966512400747x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Irregular eating patterns might be a contributing factor to these numbers (9 – 11) .”
Can Circadian Eating Pattern Adjustments Reduce Risk or Prevent Development of T2D?
Harris, C., & Czaja, K. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15071762 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“For example, the largest meal of the day, dinner, was consumed around noon in medieval England [26].”
BackgroundInfluentialAn AI Based Approach for Personalized Nutrition and Food Menu Planning
Azzimani, K., Bihri, H., Dahmi, A., Azzouzi, S., & Charaf, M. E. H. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Control, Optimization and Computer Science (ICECOCS) · doi:10.1109/icecocs55148.2022.9983099 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“In fact, the authors in [6] has drawn conclusions that could provide solutions for developing practical interventions regarding meal synchronization, developing feasible public health programs, and establishing guidelines for more efficient lifestyles aiming at preventing diseases related to…”
BackgroundJacob, R., Tremblay, A., Provencher, V., Panahi, S., Mathieu, M.-E., & Drapeau, V. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1155971 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Sex differences in chronotype may also be involved, as men usually present a later chronotype (78).”
BackgroundResultHui, Y., Wang, X., Yu, Z., Feng, H., Li, C., Mao, L., Fan, X., Lin, L., Cui, B., Chen, X., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.719176 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Ledesma, S. N., González-Muñoz, A., Ríos, M. D. C. G., de la Serna, D., & Pruimboom, L. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19116481 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Sepúlveda, B., Marín, A., Burrows, R. A., Sepúlveda-Peñaloza, A., & Chamorro, R. (2024) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-024-00532-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Recent evidence has shown that the timing of food intake plays a crucial role in maintaining metabolic health [14–16].”
Identification of factors influencing motivation to undertake time-restricted feeding in humans
Jefcoate, P. W., Robertson, M. D., Ogden, J., & Johnston, J. D. (2021) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2021.105240 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Yan, B., Caton, S. J., & Buckland, N. J. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107646 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“This is also in line with Larson et al. (2013), where the frequency of communal meals correlated with better dietary patterns among adults, highlighting the role of social dynamics in meal timing (Dashti et al., 2019).”
BackgroundResultMoreira, F. D., Reis, C. E. G., Gallassi, A. D., Moreira, D. C., & Welker, A. F. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0311501 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Vahlhaus, J., Peters, B., Hornemann, S., Ost, A.-C., Kruse, M., Busjahn, A., Pfeiffer, A. F. H., & Pivovarova‐Ramich, O. (2025) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105737 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“14,15 For instance, the caloric midpoint assessed in the German NUGAT cohort (15:51 hr) slightly differs from those shown by Lopez-Minguez et al. (15:20 hr) 16 and Teixeira et al. (15:00 hr), 38 which might be explained by cultural or regional differences.”
Kunde, H., Ioannou, E., Chovatiya, J., Jagani, R., Charisiadis, P., Arora, M., Andra, S. S., & Makris, K. C. (2025) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2025.109682 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Ren, X., Zhang, M., Sun, X., Zheng, L., Bi, Y., Li, Q., Sun, L., Di, F., Xu, Y., Zhu, D., et al. (2025) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12967-025-06870-z · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Late eating episodes may particularly involve more processed, convenient foods rather than home-prepared meals, and evening consumption of high-fructose beverages may have particularly deleterious effects on hepatic metabolism [61–63].”
Kant, A. K., & Graubard, B. I. (2024) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2024.07.158 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Jacob, R., Tremblay, A., Panahi, S., Provencher, V., & Drapeau, V. (2020) · Clinical Obesity · doi:10.1111/cob.12360 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Weekday–Weekend Differences in Chrononutritional Variables Depend on Urban or Rural Living
Santos, J. S., Crispim, C. A., Skene, D. J., & Moreno, C. R. D. C. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17010108 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Urban residents are thus prone to experience delayed food intake times and a longer eating window during weekdays, which drives both health and well-being impairments due to circadian misalignment [8,45].”
Delivery time reliability in on-demand food delivery: Heterogeneity from attribution effects
Ma, B., Teo, C., Wong, Y. D., & Sun, S. (2025) · Transportation Research Part E Logistics and Transportation Review · doi:10.1016/j.tre.2025.104335 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Sleep Variability, Eating Timing Variability, and Carotid Intima‐Media Thickness in Early Adulthood
Hoopes, E. K., Witman, M. A., D’Agata, M. N., Brewer, B. C., Edwards, D. G., Robson, S. M., Malone, S. K., Keiser, T., & Patterson, F. (2023) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.123.029662 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rahkola, J., Lehtimäki, A.-V., Abdollahi, A. M., Merikanto, I., Vepsäläinen, H., Björkqvist, J., Roos, E., Erkkola, M., & Lehto, R. (2023) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114523002350 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“These confounding factors were chosen based on previous literature: factors used in studies similar to this one (13,14,17,18,46) or associated with the exposures and outcomes of this study (35,47,48) .”
MethodMazri, F. H., Manaf, Z. A., Shahar, S., Ludin, A. F. M., & Karim, N. A. (2023) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2023.2165092 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…research did not describe the chronotypes (Jakubowicz et al. 2013; Madjd et al. 2016) and participant’s work schedule (Hatanaka et al. 2022) which are the crucial determinants of food timing that can affect the adherence and successfulness of meal timing intervention (Dashti et al. 2019).”
BackgroundThe diversity and consistency of what and when people eat
Tran, T., Manoogian, E. N. C., Hou, Z. J., Varshney, S., Sui, J., Laing, K. L., Fleischer, J., & Panda, S. (2026) · Nature Metabolism · doi:10.1038/s42255-026-01504-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“In NHANES, time-of-day data are used as memory aids rather than validated time stamps, and independent studies have found only modest concordance ( r = 0.15–0.45) between 24HDR-reported eating times and contemporaneous food diaries 26 .”
InfluentialChrononutrition in Chronic Kidney Disease
Castro-Mata, P. C., Cueto-Manzano, A. M., Vizmanos-Lamotte, B., González-Ortíz, A., Betancourt‐Núñez, A., & Martín-del-Campo, F. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17030389 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Murakami, K., Shinozaki, N., Livingstone, M. B. E., McCaffrey, T. A., Masayasu, S., & Sasaki, S. (2025) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-025-01129-1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Development of the CNBQ was informed by existing questionnaires [64–70] and several reviews [9, 11, 71] in the field of temporal patterns of eating and chrononutrition.”
Hung, A.-Y., Chien, L.-C., & Lin, R. (2022) · Industrial Health · doi:10.2486/indhealth.2021-0278 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Wearable Cameras Reveal Large Intra-Individual Variability in Timing of Eating among Young Adults
Wang, L., Chan, V., Allman-Farinelli, M. A., Davies, A. J., Wellard‐Cole, L., & Rangan, A. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14204349 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Murakami, K., Shinozaki, N., McCaffrey, T. A., Livingstone, M. B. E., Masayasu, S., & Sasaki, S. (2025) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-025-01740-9 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“It is important to assess a comprehensive set of chrononutrition-related parameters, as the variables having the greatest pertinence to chrononutrition research have not yet been identified [6, 36].”
InfluentialTime-restricted eating as a novel strategy for treatment of obesity and it’s comorbid conditions
Berkovskaya, M. A., Gurova, O. Y., Khaykina, I. A., & Fadeev, V. V. (2022) · Problems of Endocrinology · doi:10.14341/probl13078 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Zhou, S., Liu, S., Wang, Y., Zhou, H., Wang, J., Wang, L., & Wang, X. (2024) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2024.1489459 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Is There a Utility of Chrono‐Specific Diets in Improving Cardiometabolic Health?
Yong, Y. N., Henry, C. J., & Haldar, S. (2022) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.202200043 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rodrigues, P. R. M., Monteiro, L. S., de Vasconcelos, T. M., Alves, I. A., Yokoo, E. M., Sichieri, R., & Pereira, R. A. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21111403 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, Dashti et al. [44] emphasize that diverse factors may determine the timing of eating, including environmental, cultural, behavioral, and physiological factors, for example, work routine like shift work, irregular part-time work, or long work hours [8].”
Lo, Y.-P., Tahara, Y., Khaing, I. K., Mochida, S., Makino, N., Nozawa, Y., Furutani, A., Kubo, T., & Shibata, S. (2024) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2024.2422868 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Notably, dinner has a significant impact on sleep, and having meals too late may lead to a misalignment between the central clock and peripheral clocks, disrupting the body’s circadian rhythm and affecting metabolism and blood sugar levels (BaHammam and Pirzada 2023; Dashti et al. 2019).”
Say, Y., Nordin, M. S., & Ng, A. L. O. (2025) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2025.2495161 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“This finding is similar to previous studies that examined the differences between weekdays and weekends (Benedict et al. 2021; Dashti et al. 2019; Veronda and Irish 2021).”
Integral Analysis of Circadian Rhythms
Vicente-Martínez, J., González-Romero, P., Pagán, P., Martínez-Nicolás, A., Madrid, J. A., Rol, M. A., & Bonmatí‐Carrión, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-32729-2_9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Effect of Personality on Chrononutrition during the COVID-19 Lockdown in Qatar
Al-Abdi, T., Heraclides, A., Papageorgiou, A., & Philippou, E. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14132725 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Several studies have found that late meal intake is indicative of excessive total daily intake [45,55], weight gain [23], and higher BMI [56,57].”
BackgroundDaily Brain Metabolic Rhythms of Wild Nocturnal Bats
Wang, T., Wang, H., Chu, Y., Bao, M., Li, X., Zhang, G., & Feng, J. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25189850 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“It has been reported that the timing of food intake plays a crucial role in maintaining metabolic health or treating impaired metabolic processes in pathological conditions [59–61].”
BackgroundD’cunha, K., Park, Y., Leech, R. M., Protani, M. M., Marquart, L., & Reeves, M. M. (2024) · Journal of Cancer Survivorship · doi:10.1007/s11764-024-01680-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“However, the study sample included predominantly White Caucasian women, limiting generalizability to other populations, especially given that sleep and eating practices often differ between ethnic and cultural backgrounds [47–49].”
Associations of temporal protein patterns with diabetes and glycemic measures
Arini, H. R. B., Leech, R. M., Tan, S., & McNaughton, S. A. (2025) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-025-01221-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The finding of higher protein intake in the evening is similar to earlier studies reporting the largest protein intake in the evening meals among British, American, and New Zealand adults [10, 15, 16].”
Diet, physical activity and obesity incidence in adolescents with disabilities
Hidayati, T., Suen, M.-W., Indriawati, R., & Akrom, A. (2023) · Bali Medical Journal · doi:10.15562/bmj.v12i1.3778 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Could “Eating Behavior” be a novel lifestyle factor that modulates risk of gastrointestinal cancers?
Trinh, J. Q., & Bishehsari, F. (2022) · HepatoBiliary Surgery and Nutrition · doi:10.21037/hbsn-22-17 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Arlinghaus, A., Vetter, C., & Gärtner, J. (2022) · sozialpolitik ch · doi:10.18753/2297-8224-220 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bozkır, Ç. (2024) · Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi dergisi/Çukurova tarım ve gıda bilimleri dergisi :/Çukurova tarım ve gıda bilimleri dergisi · doi:10.36846/cjafs.2024.147 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Huang, Y. C., Xu, Y.-X., Shen, Y., Zhou, Y., Wan, Y., Tao, F., & Sun, Y. (2024) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114524001636 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bettini, S., Carraro, E., Pilatone, A., Schiff, S., Girardi, P., D’Angelo, M., Begolli, A., Mansouri, F., Toosinezhad, S., Sandri, S., et al. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17172901 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The timing of food intake has been reported as essential in maintaining metabolic health or treating impaired metabolic processes in pathological conditions [13,14].”
Tillman, I., Maukonen, M., Ruokolahti, A. M., Vepsäläinen, H., Ray, C., Rahkola, J., Roos, E., Erkkola, M., & Lehto, R. (2025) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-025-03800-z · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This phenomenon may be attributed to children with evening chronotype tendencies allowing families to follow their natural preferences [ 21].”
Fernández‐Rodríguez, R., Boira-Nacher, B., Visier‐Alfonso, M. E., Torres-Costoso, A. I., Martínez‐Vizcaíno, V., & Ruiz, J. R. (2025) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.70061 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“These specific characteristics of TRE might be related to benefits or disadvantages for behavioral adherence [18–20].”
Evaluating the Accuracy of Declared Eating Schedules by Continuous Glucose Monitoring
González-Romero, P., Madrid, J. A., Pagán, P., & Rol, M. A. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18050772 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Design and analysis of batched order-of-addition experiments
Zhao, C., Chen, J., & Liu, M. (2026) · Computational Statistics & Data Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.csda.2026.108386 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aljaadi, A. M., Bogis, R. J., Alruhili, N. A., Alharbi, S. O., & Noorwali, E. A. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15184018 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“We believe that no other studies have explored the relationship between stress and consuming meals at set times during the pandemic and this need to be confirmed in other populations, taking into consideration multiple factors [43].”
BackgroundKAJIAN PEMAHAMAN ARTI PENTING DIET SEHAT BAGI MAHASISWA
Suryani, C. L., & Murti, S. T. C. (2024) · Jurnal Edukasi Pengabdian Masyarakat · doi:10.36636/eduabdimas.v3i1.3721 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Тенденції вибору збалансованого харчування споживачами послуг індустрії гостинності
Тарасюк, Г. М., & Чагайда, А. О. (2024) · Економіка управління та адміністрування · doi:10.26642/ema-2024-1(107)-26-38 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wang, Y., Cao, Y., Zhou, X., Liu, Y., Wu, J. T., & Ming, L. (2025) · Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome · doi:10.1186/s13098-025-01853-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This finding aligns with prior research suggesting that dietary patterns can impact metabolic regulation [33, 34].”
Lages, M., Carmo‐Silva, S., Barros, R., & Guarino, M. P. (2025) · Applied Food Research · doi:10.1016/j.afres.2025.101242 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hari, R., Marikutty, & Giri, P. V. (2022) · International Research Journal of Ayurveda & Yoga · doi:10.47223/irjay.2022.5706 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Multiple inducible thermogenic mechanisms in the development of cold acclimatization
Lu, H., & Luo, W. (2023) · Frigid Zone Medicine · doi:10.2478/fzm-2023-0011
Relación entre el horario de comidas, la composición corporal y pérdida de peso
Perez, C. A. (2023) · MLS Health & Nutrition Research · doi:10.60134/mlshn.v2i1.1837
The Benefits of Selected Nutritional Compounds Towards Atherosclerosis Management
Poznyak, A. V., Ekta, M. B., Sukhorukov, V. N., Popov, M. A., & Grechko, A. V. (2023) · OnLine Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.3844/ojbsci.2024.48.63
“Notably, intermittent fasting showed no safety concerns (Dashti et al ., 2019).”
Background
- Authors
- Dashti, H. S., Scheer, F. A. J. L., Saxena, R., & Garaulet, M.
- Affiliations
- Broad Institute (US)
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (ES)
- Corresponding author
- Dashti, Hassan S
- Venue
- Advances in Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-07
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 606-620
- ISSN
- 2156-5376 (ISSN-L)
- 2161-8313
- PMC
- PMC6628856
- OpenAlex
- W2943037971
- Cited by
- 121
- References
- 117
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 4.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Advances in Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (R01HL094806, R01HL118601, R01DK099512, R01DK102696, R01DK105072, DK107859)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- meal timing, intervention design, physiological factors, vulnerable populations, lifestyle modification, disease prevention, metabolic health
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Energy Intake, Diet, Eating, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Life Style, Male, Metabolic Diseases, Obesity, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Factors, Time Factors, Nutrition Policy, Vulnerable Populations, Patient Preference
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