Macrophage Polarization in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases: Killers or Builders?
Open accessAbstract
Macrophages are key cellular components of the innate immunity, acting as the main player in the first-line defence against the pathogens and modulating homeostatic and inflammatory responses. Plasticity is a major feature of macrophages resulting in extreme heterogeneity both in normal and in pathological conditions. Macrophages are not homogenous, and they are generally categorized into two broad but distinct subsets as either classically activated (M1) or alternatively activated (M2). However, macrophages represent a continuum of highly plastic effector cells, resembling a spectrum of diverse phenotype states. Induction of specific macrophage functions is closely related to the surrounding environment that acts as a relevant orchestrator of macrophage functions. This phenomenon, termed polarization, results from cell/cell, cell/molecule interaction, governing macrophage functionality within the hosting tissues. Here, we summarized relevant cellular and molecular mechanisms driving macrophage polarization in "distant" pathological conditions, such as cancer, type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, and periodontitis that share macrophage-driven inflammation as a key feature, playing their dual role as killers (M1-like) and/or builders (M2-like). We also dissect the physio/pathological consequences related to macrophage polarization within selected chronic inflammatory diseases, placing polarized macrophages as a relevant hallmark, putative biomarkers, and possible target for prevention/therapy.
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M2 macrophages are polarized and activated upon exposure to IL-4, IL-10 or IL-13.
“M2 macrophages are polarized and activated upon exposure to certain cytokines such as IL-4, IL-10 or IL-13”
From Superoxide Anion Chemistry—Its Role at the Core of the Innate Immunity (2023) · cites this paper as [196]
M2 macrophages are associated with wound healing and tissue repair.
“These M2 macrophages are associated with wound healing and tissue repair.”
From Superoxide Anion Chemistry—Its Role at the Core of the Innate Immunity (2023) · cites this paper as [196]
M2 macrophages produce polyamines and/or proline, which are involved in cell proliferation and collagen production.
“subsequently producing polyamines and/or proline, which are involved in cell proliferation and collagen production [196].”
From Superoxide Anion Chemistry—Its Role at the Core of the Innate Immunity (2023) · cites this paper as [196]
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- Authors
- Parisi, L., Gini, E., Baci, D., Tremolati, M., Fanuli, M., Bassani, B., Farronato, G., Bruno, A., & Mortara, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Milan (IT)
- University of Insubria (IT)
- MultiMedica (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Parisi, Luca
- Bassani, Barbara
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Immunology Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018
- Volume
- 2018
- Pages
- 1-25
- ISSN
- 2314-7156 (ISSN-L)
- 2314-8861
- PMC
- PMC5821995
- OpenAlex
- W2783643850
- Cited by
- 508
- References
- 265
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 90 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 64 · 2020: 61 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 4.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Immunology Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca (Universita Degli Studi Di Milano) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- IrInSubria (University of Insubria) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune cells in cancer
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac Fibrosis and Remodeling
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
- Keywords
- macrophage polarization, chronic inflammation, macrophage heterogeneity, macrophage plasticity, cancer-associated macrophages, type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, periodontitis, biomarkers, therapeutic target
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cell Differentiation, Chronic Disease, Humans, Immune System Diseases, Inflammation, Macrophages, Cytokines, Th1 Cells, Th2 Cells
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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