Personality and Longevity: Knowns, Unknowns, and Implications for Public Health and Personalized Medicine

In the paper

“Conscientiousness involves a strong self-regulatory component, which facilitates adaptive outcomes [61] in part by preventing inflexibility like perfectionism or compulsive behavior.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [61] Moffitt TE Arseneault L Belsky D A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2011 108 7 2693 2698 21262822 PMC3041102 source

In the paper

“IL-6 is associated with chronic stress, a number of chronic diseases, and negative health behaviors, and is a major predictor of mortality in older persons [67, 68].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [67] Harris TB Ferrucci L Tracy RP Associations of elevated interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein levels with mortality in the elderly American Journal of Medicine 1999 106 5 506 512 10335721 source
• Not checked yetcites [68] Gruenewald TL Seeman TE Ryff CD Karlamangla AS Singer BH Combinations of biomarkers predictive of later life mortality Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2006 103 38 14158 14163 16983099 PMC1599928 source

In the paper

“Another issue is impulsivity tends to decline with age in most cohorts, in part as a normal function of aging [7]”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [7] Roberts BW Walton KE Viechtbauer W Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies Psychological Bulletin 2006 132 1 1 25 16435954 source

In the paper

“Null findings in specific samples (the ill elderly, alcohol/substance abusers, cancer patients) and links between Extraversion and smoking suggest that the salutary effects of Extraversion, arising from traits such as sociability, activity, and positive mood, may be overpowered by the mortality risks conferred by physical morbidity or destructive addictive behaviors.”

In the paper

“In general, this family of traits is theorized to improve adaptation to hardship or life challenges via the use of proactive, effective coping [125].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [125] Surtees PG Wainwright NWJ Khaw KT Sense of coherence, social adversity and mortality Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2006 61 3 376 381 16880025 source

In the paper

“Neuroticism gives rise to medically unfounded symptom complaints and somatic sensitivity [118, 121], which may protect an individual from premature mortality even though it risks burdening health care providers and the health care system.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [118] Costa PT Jr. McCrae RR Neuroticism, somatic complaints, and disease: is the bark worse than the bite? Journal of personality 1987 55 2 299 316 3612472 source
• Not checked yetcites [121] Noyes R Watson DB Letuchy EM Relationship between hypochondriacal concerns and personality dimensions and traits in a military population Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 2005 193 2 110 118 15684913 source

In the paper

“More adaptive coping has been posited as one mechanism explaining the association of optimism with lower mortality risk [101].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [101] Solberg Nes L Segerstrom SC Dispositional optimism and coping: a meta-analytic review Personality and Social Psychology Review 2006 10 3 235 251 16859439 source

In the paper

““Healthy neuroticism” encompasses “worried well” tendencies that may facilitate engagement in preventive health behavior to allay concern about acquiring chronic health problems.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [26] Friedman HS Long-term relations of personality and health: dynamisms, mechanisms, tropisms Journal of Personality 2000 68 6 1089 1107 11130733 source

In the paper

“Friedman has proposed a theory of “healthy” versus unhealthy Neuroticism [26].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [26] Friedman HS Long-term relations of personality and health: dynamisms, mechanisms, tropisms Journal of Personality 2000 68 6 1089 1107 11130733 source

In the paper

“Sense of coherence appears to produce more adaptive coping in response to life stressors, which was in turn associated with lower mortality risk [125].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [125] Surtees PG Wainwright NWJ Khaw KT Sense of coherence, social adversity and mortality Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2006 61 3 376 381 16880025 source

In the paper

“One study to date has demonstrated a protective effect for Agreeableness against all-cause mortality over 3 years in an elderly sample; this was due primarily to specific aspects of the Agreeableness scale reflecting low levels of interpersonal antagonism [63].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [63] Weiss A Costa PT Jr. Domain and facet personality predictors of all-cause mortality among medicare patients aged 65 to 100 Psychosomatic Medicine 2005 67 5 724 733 16204430 source

In the paper

“Under this model, the personality predisposition precedes a diagnosis and persists after the depressive symptoms have been treated, in the same way that a compromised immune system precedes the inception of an opportunistic infection and remains after the infection has been treated.”

In the paper

“This study used a different measure of agreeableness focusing on compassion and caring.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [62] Chapman BP Fiscella K Kawachi I Duberstein PR Personality, socioeconomic status, and all-cause mortality in the United States American Journal of Epidemiology 2010 171 1 83 92 19965888 PMC2800299 source

In the paper

“People who rarely experience positive emotions (an aspect of low Extraversion) may be more liable to experience virtual absence of pleasure or interest, which is the second cardinal symptom of depression.”

In the paper

“In general, recent research supports the adaptive value of perceived control [131], although not inexorably under all conditions [132].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [131] Infurma FJ Gerstorf D Ram N Schupp J Wagner GG Long-term antecedents and outcomes of perceived control Psychology and Aging. In press PMC3319760 21517184 source
• Not checked yetcites [132] Hall NC Chipperfield JG Heckhausen J Perry RP Control striving in older adults with serious health problems: a 9-year longitudinal study of survival, health, and well-being Psychology and Aging 2010 25 2 432 445 20545427 source

In the paper

“which both contribute to the progression of CVD.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [147] Denollet J Schiffer AA Kwaijtaal M Usefulness of type D personality and kidney dysfunction as predictors of interpatient variability in inflammatory activation in chronic heart failure American Journal of Cardiology 2009 103 3 399 404 19166697 source
• Not checked yetcites [148] Conraads VM Denollet J De Clerck LS Stevens WJ Bridts C Vrints CJ Type D personality is associated with increased levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α and TNF-α receptors in chronic heart failure International Journal of Cardiology 2006 113 1 34 38 16325284 source
• Not checked yetcites [149] Denollet J Conraads VM Brutsaert DL De Clerck LS Stevens WJ Vrints CJ Cytokines and immune activation in systolic heart failure: the role of type D personality Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 2003 17 4 304 309 12831833 source
• Not checked yetcites [150] Denollet J Vrints CJ Conraads VM Comparing Type D personality and older age as correlates of tumor necrosis factor-α dysregulation in chronic heart failure Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 2008 22 5 736 743 18068948 source
• Not checked yetcites [151] Kupper N Gidron Y Winter J Denollet J Association between type D personality, depression, and oxidative stress in patients with chronic heart failure Psychosomatic Medicine 2009 71 9 973 980 19834046 source

In the paper

“In this UK cohort, the same pattern of findings emerged for those with low sense of coherence, although this trait was a risk for cancer mortality only in men [128].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [128] Surtees P Wainwright N Luben R Khaw KT Day N Sense of coherence and mortality in Men and Women in the EPIC-Norfolk United Kingdom prospective cohort study American Journal of Epidemiology 2003 158 12 1202 1209 14652305 source

In the paper

“These latter two studies reported small to modest elevations in mortality risk for Type D that were not statistically significant.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [144] Pelle AJ Pedersen SS Schiffer AA Szabó B Widdershoven JW Denollet J Psychological distress and mortality in systolic heart failure Circulation: Heart Failure 2010 3 2 261 267 20071656 source
• Not checked yetcites [145] de Voogd JN Wempe JB Postema K More evidence that depressive symptoms predict mortality in COPD patients: is type D personality an alternative explanation? Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2009 38 2 86 93 19513800 PMC2793382 source

In the paper

“Suppression was first identified in a Yugoslavian cohort as predictive of all-cause and CVD death over 10 years, but was particularly predictive of cancer death in a study by Grossarth-Maticeck [45].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [45] Grossarth-Maticek R Bastiaans J Kanazir DT Psychosocial factors as strong predictors of mortality from cancer, ischaemic heart disease and stroke: the Yugoslav prospective study Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1985 29 2 167 176 4009517 source

In the paper

“Others found that hostility was not associated with CVD risk or 25-year all-cause mortality in male physicians [168]”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [168] McCranie EW Watkins LO Brandsma JM Sisson BD Hostility, coronary heart disease (CHD) incidence, and total mortality: lack of association in a 25-year follow-up study of 478 physicians Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1986 9 2 119 125 3712425 source

In the paper

“This theory was first introduced by a cardiologist in the 1950s and proposed that the combination of impatience, hard-driving, competitiveness, and hostility was associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) [158].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [158] Friedman M Type A Behavior: Its Diagnosis and Treatment 1996 New York, NY, USA Plenum

In the paper

“Yet the Big 5 was designed as a classification system for many personality traits, not as the ultimate level of analysis in personality research.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [79] Costa PT Jr. McCrae RR Revised NEO Personality Inventory and NEO Five Factor Inventory: Professional Manual 1992 Odessa, Fla, USA Psychological Assessment

In the paper

“and to social dominance in men (defined by cutting off and speaking over an interviewer) [175], which is similar to aggressive responding.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [175] Houston BK Babyak MA Chesney MA Black G Ragland DR Social dominance and 22-year all-cause mortality in men Psychosomatic Medicine 1997 59 1 5 12 9021861 source

In the paper

“However, in the early 1980s investigators began to study hostility in particular [159, 160], concluding that it was the primary “toxic” component of the Type A personality [161, 162].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [159] Barefoot JC Dahlstrom WG Williams RB Jr. Hostility, CHD incidence, and total mortality: a 25-year follow-up study of 255 physicians Psychosomatic Medicine 1983 45 1 59 63 6844529 source
• Not checked yetcites [160] Shekelle RB Gale M Ostfeld AM Paul O Hostility, risk of coronary heart disease, and mortality Psychosomatic Medicine 1983 45 2 109 114 6867229 source
• Not checked yetcites [161] Dembroski TM Costa PT Jr. Coronary prone behavior: components of the type A pattern and hostility Journal of Personality 1987 55 2 211 235 3612469 source
• Not checked yetcites [162] Dembroski TM MacDougall JM Costa PT Jr. Grandits GA Components of hostility as predictors of sudden death and myocardial infarction in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Psychosomatic Medicine 1989 51 5 514 522 2678209 source

In the paper

“For instance, the 240 item NEO-Personality Inventory Revised (NEO-PI R) [79] was designed to capture the Big 5 general dimensions, as well as 30 more specific personality traits subordinate to the Big 5.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [79] Costa PT Jr. McCrae RR Revised NEO Personality Inventory and NEO Five Factor Inventory: Professional Manual 1992 Odessa, Fla, USA Psychological Assessment

In the paper

“A large French study found that both the CVD-prone and antisocial personalities predicted both all-cause, cardiovascular, and external-cause (i.e., accidents, homicides) mortality [188].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [188] Nabi H Kiviméki M Zins M Does personality predict mortality: results from the GAZEL French prospective cohort study International Journal of Epidemiology 2008 37 2 386 396 18263645 PMC2662885 source

In the paper

“These discrepancies were largely reconciled when investigators decomposed hostility into 6 components and found that only some were predictive of earlier mortality.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [173] Barefoot JC Dodge KA Peterson BL Dahlstrom WG Williams RB The Cook-Medley hostility scale: item content and ability to predict survival Psychosomatic Medicine 1989 51 1 46 57 2928460 source

In the paper

“This is generally supported by current understanding of mechanisms linking traits to disease, in Figure 1.”

In the paper

“Instead, personality was thought to affect a common set of etiologic factors for multiple diseases (i.e., smoking, obesity, and neuroendocrine dysregulation, which are implicated in several disease), which would make it hard to connect specific traits only to certain outcomes.”

In the paper

“This was, in fact, proposed as a general principle of epidemiologic personality research over a decade ago [189]”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [189] Krueger RF Caspi A Moffitt TE Epidemiological personology: the unifying role of personality in population-based research on problem behaviors Journal of Personality 2000 68 6 967 998 11130741 source

In the paper

“For instance, one project developed scales for a number of traits from an interpersonal theory of personality and found that they correlated as expected with scales in an auxiliary dataset that were directly designed to capture these traits [196].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [196] Traupman EK Smith TW Uchino BN Berg CA Trobst KK Costa PT Jr. Interpersonal circumplex octant, control, and affiliation scales for the NEO-PI-R Personality and Individual Differences 2009 47 5 457 463 PMC5102510 27840466 source

In the paper

“Different models may also characterize different personality traits and outcome [32, 206–210].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [32] Neeleman J Ormel J Bijl RV The distribution of psychiatric and somatic III health: associations with personality and socioeconomic status Psychosomatic Medicine 2001 63 2 239 247 11292271 source
• Not checked yetcites [206] Lachman ME Weaver SL The sense of control as a moderator of social class differences in health and well-being Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1998 74 3 763 773 9523418 source
• Not checked yetcites [207] Kivimäki M Elovainio M Kokko K Pulkkinen L Kortteinen M Tuomikoski H Hostility, unemployment and health status: testing three theoretical models Social Science and Medicine 2003 56 10 2139 2152 12697203 source
• Not checked yetcites [208] Lynch JW Kaplan GA Salonen JT Why do poor people behave poorly? Variation in adult health behaviours and psychosocial characteristics by stages of the socioeconomic lifecourse Social Science and Medicine 1997 44 6 809 819 9080564 source
• Not checked yetcites [209] Marmot MG Fuhrer R Ettner SL Marks NF Bumpass LL Ryff CD Contribution of psychosocial factors to socioeconomic differences in health Milbank Quarterly 1998 76 3 403 448 9738169 PMC2751083 source
• Not checked yetcites [210] Bosma H van de Mheen HD Mackenbach JP Social class in childhood and general health in adulthood: questionnaire study of contribution of psychological attributes British Medical Journal 1999 318 7175 18 22 9872877 PMC27669 source

In the paper

“While most of the studies above controlled for education as a proxy measure of SES, very few focused on issues outlined at the end of Section 2 about the role of personality in socioeconomic inequalities in longevity.”

In the paper

“Another area for further study is the interface between IQ, personality, and SES links to longevity: while mortality risk due to low IQ is partially associated with mortality risk due to low SES, the role of maladaptive personality traits in these associations has been rarely studied [37].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [37] Deary IJ Weiss AW Batty GD Intelligence and personality as predictors of illness and death: how researchers in differential psychology and chronic disease epidemiology are collaborating to understand and address health inequalities Psychological Science in the Public Interests 2010 11 2 53 79 26168413 source

In the paper

“An example is health service utilization, the many determinants of which [214] may include personality [215–217].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [214] Andersen RM Revisiting the behavioral model and access to medical care: does it matter? Journal of Health and Social Behavior 1995 36 1 1 10 7738325 source
• Not checked yetcites [215] Chipperfield JG Greenslade L Perceived control as a buffer in the use of health care services Journals of Gerontology—Series B Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 1999 54 3 P146 P154 10363035 source
• Not checked yetcites [216] Goodwin RD Hoven CW Lyons JS Stein MB Mental health service utilization in the United States. The role of personality factors Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 2002 37 12 561 566 12545232 source
• Not checked yetcites [217] Chapman BP Fiscella K Kawachi I Duberstein PR Personality traits predict emergency department utilization over three years in older patients American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2009 17 526 535 19461261 PMC2745738 source

In the paper

“The indirect selection hypothesis originally suggested that persons with certain characteristic self select into lower SES, meaning health inequalities are an indirect effect of this selection process [203].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [203] Black DS Inequalities in Health: The Black Report 1988 Harmondsworth, UK Penguin

In the paper

“As noted above, there are limitations to both overly general measures of personality that aggregate across several traits (i.e., only some of the content may be relevant to a given health outcome), but also to overly specific traits (i.e., selective focus on one narrow aspect of personality out of context of other traits).”

In the paper

“Therefore, despite the presence of indirect selection, the mortality risk of low SES can still be partially offset by adaptive personality traits, and vice versa (a compensatory cumulative model).”

In the paper

“Finally, the selective vulnerability hypothesis suggests that social adversity engenders more health problems in those with vulnerable personality configurations.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [199] MacKenbach JP New trends in health inequalities research: now it’s personal The Lancet 2010 376 9744 854 855 20663547
• Not checked yetcites [202] Gallacher J Commentary: personality and health inequality: inconclusive evidence for an indirect hypothesis International Journal of Epidemiology 2008 37 3 602 603 18388151

In the paper

“The compensatory-cumulative model suggests that personality traits may independently add to or detract from mortality risk conferred by disadvantaged social environments, and/or the benefits conferred by social advantage.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [199] MacKenbach JP New trends in health inequalities research: now it’s personal The Lancet 2010 376 9744 854 855 20663547
• Not checked yetcites [202] Gallacher J Commentary: personality and health inequality: inconclusive evidence for an indirect hypothesis International Journal of Epidemiology 2008 37 3 602 603 18388151

In the paper

“Studies are rarely powered to detect interactions between personality and SES however, making it difficult to test the selective vulnerability model adequately.”

In the paper

“First, other health behaviors may play a role, yet are rarely measured.”

In the paper

“Definitive studies on this have yet to be conducted, however.”

In the paper

“More recent formulations of indirect selection have argued that the relationship between personality and socioeconomic circumstances is mutually reinforcing over time and must be viewed as a bidirectional process in which personality and SES mutually reinforce one another over time [62].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [62] Chapman BP Fiscella K Kawachi I Duberstein PR Personality, socioeconomic status, and all-cause mortality in the United States American Journal of Epidemiology 2010 171 1 83 92 19965888 PMC2800299 source

In the paper

“An important note is that modeling the simultaneous effects of several highly correlated facets can create analytic and interpretive challenges.”

In the paper

“Far more studies have used abbreviated Big 5 measures, such as the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), which was designed originally only to capture the Big 5 broad composites [79].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [79] Costa PT Jr. McCrae RR Revised NEO Personality Inventory and NEO Five Factor Inventory: Professional Manual 1992 Odessa, Fla, USA Psychological Assessment

In the paper

“It is also important to examine nonlinearities and trait interactions [211, 212] in predicting mortality, a notion supported by the evolutionary theory that no single trait at high or low levels is likely to be globally adaptive [213].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [211] Smith TW Spiro A Personality, health, and aging: prolegomenon for the next generation Journal of Research in Personality 2002 36 4 363 394
• Not checked yetcites [212] Cloninger CR How does personality influence mortality in the elderly? Psychosomatic Medicine 2005 67 6 839 840 16314586 source
• Not checked yetcites [213] Nettle D The evolution of personality variation in humans and other animals American Psychologist 2006 61 6 622 631 16953749 source

In the paper

“First, the additional personality data would increase the accuracy of individual risk forecasting models for outcomes of interest.”

In the paper

“Separate examinations of mediating paths in different strata may help identify moderated mediation, reflecting different causal chains in different populations [226].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [226] Preacher KJ Rucker DD Hayes AF Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: theory, methods, and prescriptions Multivariate Behavioral Research 2007 42 1 185 227 26821081 source

In the paper

“suggesting that personality-related interventions warrant serious consideration.”

In the paper

“Personality assessment thus offers a comprehensive screening strategy for psychosocial health risks, not a case-finding strategy for people with prevalent symptoms for one specific form of psychopathology.”

In the paper

“Given the links between personality and health, an obvious opportunity exists for translational research integrating personality phenotype into personalized medicine.”

In the paper

“In general, personality assessment could improve the provision of patient-centered care because the physicians better understand how to approach and interact with different kinds of patients.”

In the paper

“One solution is to simply use the mediated fraction [224], which is statistically identical to the confounded fraction above but simply assumes that the third variable is a mediator, rather than confounder [225].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [224] Kaufman JS MacLehose RF Kaufman S Greenland S The mediation proportion Epidemiology 2005 16 5 p. 710 16135954 source
• Not checked yetcites [225] MacKinnon DP Krull JL Lockwood CM Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect Prevention Science 2000 1 4 173 181 11523746 PMC2819361 source

In the paper

“In addition, psychotherapy [242] or pharmacotherapy [246] may alter personality tendencies.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [242] Costa PT Jr. McCrae RR Personality in Adulthood: A Five Factor Theory Perspective 2033 2nd edition New York, NY, USA Guilford Press
• Not checked yetcites [246] Tang TZ DeRubeis RJ Hollon SD Amsterdam J Shelton R Schalet B Personality change during depression treatment: a placebo-controlled trial Archives of General Psychiatry 2009 66 12 1322 1330 19996037 PMC2799251 source

In the paper

“However, personality is conspicuously absent in formulations of personalized medicine.”

In the paper

“A key requirement is control for confounders of the mediation pathway—just as a direct main effect may confounded by unobserved factors, so may a mediated effect [222].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [222] Imai K Keele L Tingley D A general approach to causal mediation analysis Psychological Methods 2010 15 4 309 334 20954780 source

In the paper

“To the extent that numerous pathways are operating, however, interventions in at-risk personality populations would need to attempt to modify multiple mediators [227].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [227] NIH, NIH Science of Behavior Change Meeting Summary, 2009

In the paper

“In contrast, personality information can range from quite specific to very general and is relatively low cost given information it may add to health risk profiling.”

In the paper

“Third, this type of information is likely to help guide and tailor treatment planning, enhancing the probability of successful care.”

In the paper

“Finally, the strength of different pathways is likely to differ across populations.”

In the paper

“This serial testing strategy has proven to be quite effective in medicine and can be thought of as a 2-step algorithm where one minimizes false negatives in the first step, and then weeds out false positives on the second step [236].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [236] Woodward M Epidemiology: Study Design and Data Analysis 2005 2nd edition New York, NY, USA Chapman & Hall

In the paper

“Second, a more detailed personality assessment would provide the physician with a wealth of psychosocial data that would otherwise take a long time to gather, preparing the physician for what s/he may expect behaviorally from a particular patient.”

In the paper

“Interest in individual differences in health risk and treatment response has gained great traction over the last decade under the rubric of personalized medicine [228].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [228] Hamburg MA Collins FS The path to personalized medicine The New England Journal of Medicine 2010 363 4 301 304 20551152 source

In the paper

“Personality phenotype reflects the results of gene-environment interaction and encodes environmental variance at a broad behavioral level.”

In the paper

“Third, this type of information is likely to help guide and tailor treatment planning, enhancing the probability of successful care.”

In the paper

“However, the increasing interest in personalized medicine has really come on the back of GWAS studies, under the rationale that patient risk can be prognosticated with increasing precision as more is learned about the roles of genes in disease [228].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [228] Hamburg MA Collins FS The path to personalized medicine The New England Journal of Medicine 2010 363 4 301 304 20551152 source

In the paper

“More recent research has shown naturalistic change over the lifespan indicating a pattern of increasing maturity with age, owing to increasing responsibilities such as marriage and child-rearing and increases in work responsibility [7].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [7] Roberts BW Walton KE Viechtbauer W Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies Psychological Bulletin 2006 132 1 1 25 16435954 source

In the paper

“Predictive modeling is an active area of quantitative research and numerous techniques have emerged in the last ten years to facilitate the construction of highly predictive scales [241].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [241] Hastie T Tibshirani R Friedman J The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction 2009 2nd edition New York, NY, USA Springer

In the paper

“Other methods exist to determine the point at which a continuous risk factor shows the steepest rise for several risks [237].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [237] Ryan L Quantitative risk assessment for developmental toxicity Biometrics 1992 48 1 163 174 1581483 source

In the paper

“First, since health is a complex function of behavior and biology, incorporating information from both domains into prediction equations should improve forecasting accuracy.”

In the paper

“Comprehensive Big 5 measures [240] can be used to develop brief screeners for outcomes of interest using the items on these inventories most predictive of those outcomes.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [240] De Raad B Perugini M Big Five Assessment 2002 Toronto, Canada Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

In the paper

“It is also about expressing concern and empathy and understanding the patient's perspective [238, 239], activities that we believe could be facilitated by personality assessment.”

In the paper

“The mere presence of these assessment tools in primary care waiting rooms would convey to patients that the provision of high quality health care is not solely about ordering diagnostic tests, arriving at the correct diagnosis, and prescribing appropriate treatments.”

In the paper

“and since health outcomes are multidetermined by biological and behavioral causes, combining assessments of these factors may be cost-effective.”

In the paper

“Studies examining different type of psychosocial intervention generally found health improvements for behavior therapy, which focuses on altering patterns of thoughts and behavior, but not for psychoanalytic therapy, which focused on developing insight into unconscious motivations [251, 252].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [251] Grossarth-Maticek R Eysenck HJ Length of survival and lymphocyte percentage in women with mammary cancer as a function of psychotherapy Psychological Reports 1989 65 1 315 321 2780939 source
• Not checked yetcites [252] Grossarth-Maticek R Eysenck HJ Prophylactic effects of psychoanalysis on cancer-prone and coronary heart disease-prone probands, as compared with control groups and behaviour therapy groups Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1990 21 2 91 99 2273076 source

In the paper

“As an initial step, traits can be continuously scaled so that a relative risk (RR) reflects, for instance, the difference in risk between people of 1 or 2 standard deviations (SDs) difference in the level of the trait, or the difference in risk between a person at the 25th and 75th percentile of the trait distribution [256].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [256] Harrell FE Jr. Regression Modeling Strategies 2001 New York, NY, USA Springer

In the paper

“Investigators attempt to reduce and control them, with skepticism over observational studies particularly great after they yielded effect estimates for hormone replacement therapy that were actually the opposite of what subsequent randomized trials showed [262].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [262] Ioannidis JPA Why most published research findings are false PLoS Medicine 2005 2 8 0696 0701 PMC1182327 16060722 source

In the paper

“while mindfulness-based stress reduction reduced Neuroticism and improved Conscientiousness in a study of practicing physicians [254].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [254] Krasner MS Epstein RM Beckman H Association of an educational program in mindful communication with burnout, empathy, and attitudes among primary care physicians JAMA 2009 302 12 1284 1293 19773563

In the paper

“with one study noting small improvement in sclerosis [249] and another enhanced survival time and lymphocyte breast count in breast cancer patients [251].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [251] Grossarth-Maticek R Eysenck HJ Length of survival and lymphocyte percentage in women with mammary cancer as a function of psychotherapy Psychological Reports 1989 65 1 315 321 2780939 source

In the paper

“More elaborate computations can be made from parametric survival models that have accurately specified the distribution of survival time [257].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [257] Rothman KJ Greenland S Lash TL Modern Epidemiology 2008 3rd edition Philadelphia, Pa, USA Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

In the paper

“One caveat is that these studies were cross-sectional, so personality effects were compared to age differences between people, which is not the same as years of ageing within people.”

In the paper

“The healthy subject effect is a particularly pernicious form of bias in which subjects with generally healthier lifestyles adopt a particular treatment in a nonrandomized study, resulting in unobserved confounding [268].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [268] Ioannidis JPA Haidich AB Pappa M Comparison of evidence of treatment effects in randomized and nonrandomized studies JAMA 2001 286 7 821 830 11497536 source

In the paper

“It can be used to pinpoint prevention and intervention avenues that will yield the most benefit to the population, and to derive other epidemiologic estimates such as Number Needed to Treat (NNT), the number of people who must be treated down to a lower level of the trait to prevent one death in the population [257].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [257] Rothman KJ Greenland S Lash TL Modern Epidemiology 2008 3rd edition Philadelphia, Pa, USA Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

In the paper

“For instance, volunteer bias, a form of selection bias, is the tendency for well-adjusted, open, and compliant people to participate in studies [261], a function of personality [263, 264].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [261] Lash TL Fox MP Fink K Applying Quantitative Bias Analysis to Epidemiologic Data 2009 New York, NY, USA Springer
• Not checked yetcites [263] Walsh JA Nash MM Personality characteristics of volunteers for medical research Criminal Justice and Behavior 1978 5 2 99 116 11662773 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [264] Lönnqvist JE Paunonen S Verkasalo M Leikas S Tuulio-Henriksson A Lönnqvist J Personality characteristics of research volunteers European Journal of Personality 2007 21 8 1017 1030

In the paper

“As these studies were conducted prior to the advent of reporting standards for clinical trials, it is not surprising that they provided very little information bearing on therapist allegiance or fidelity.”

In the paper

“This is particularly important since personality traits, unlike BMI, annual household income or assets, years of education, or other continuous risk factors, have no inherently meaningful metric.”

In the paper

“Numerous biases plague observational studies and to some extent randomized clinical trials [261].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [261] Lash TL Fox MP Fink K Applying Quantitative Bias Analysis to Epidemiologic Data 2009 New York, NY, USA Springer

In the paper

“Adherence to medication and study drop-out alike appears to be related to personality characteristics [265–267].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [265] Christensen AJ Patient-by-treatment context interaction in chronic disease: a conceptual framework for the study of patient adherence Psychosomatic Medicine 2000 62 3 435 443 10845357 source
• Not checked yetcites [266] Jerant A Chapman EP Duberstein P Franks P Is personality a key predictor of missing study data? An analysis from a randomized controlled trial Annals of Family Medicine 2009 7 2 148 156 19273870 PMC2653957 source
• Not checked yetcites [267] Jerant A Chapman B Duberstein P Robbins J Franks P Personality and medication non-adherence among older adults enrolled in a six-year trial British Journal of Health Psychology 2011 16 1 151 169 21226789 PMC3126620 source

In the paper

“PAR combines information about the relative risk of a trait such as low conscientiousness, with the prevalence of that trait in the population [257].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [257] Rothman KJ Greenland S Lash TL Modern Epidemiology 2008 3rd edition Philadelphia, Pa, USA Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

In the paper

“Other studies have noted that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) tend to reduce Neuroticism and improve Extraversion [246, 253] in depressed samples”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [246] Tang TZ DeRubeis RJ Hollon SD Amsterdam J Shelton R Schalet B Personality change during depression treatment: a placebo-controlled trial Archives of General Psychiatry 2009 66 12 1322 1330 19996037 PMC2799251 source
• Not checked yetcites [253] Costa PT Jr. Bagby RM Herbst JH McCrae RR Personality self-reports are concurrently reliable and valid during acute depressive episodes Journal of Affective Disorders 2005 89 1–3 45 55 16203041 source

In the paper

“A final public health metric relevant to longevity is the Years of Potential Life Lost (YPLL) associated with, for instance, the 75th versus 25th percentile of a personality trait.”

In the paper

“Personality captures many of the propensities toward healthy lifestyle [269], meaning healthy subject bias may be controlled if personality can be measured.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [269] Edmonds G Personality and the Healthy Lifestyle as Predictors of Physical Health: Can the Healthy Lifestyle be Explained by Personality? 2009 Urbana, Ill, USA Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

In the paper

“Such measures would help clarify the individual and population impact of personality traits on longevity.”

In the paper

“Certain traits are associated with accelerated aging, and the amount of acceleration could be quantified.”

In the paper

“A number of similar measures, including quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) could also be computed.”

In the paper

“personality assessment may play a role in prognosticating and improving quality of life in old age as well.”

In the paper

“Finally, personality traits offer comprehensive information that could be used as personalized medicine begins to gain traction.”

In the paper

“As a result, use of z may be more cost-effective and analytically tractable in controlling for healthy subject bias.”

In the paper

“As personality is related to longevity, it can be used to better understand and adjust for healthy survivor effects.”

In the paper

“Finally, the healthy survivor effect reflects the tendency for findings in samples of older adults to differ from those in younger samples.”

In the paper

“Personality may also help general health researchers adjust for a number of usually unmeasured behavioral and psychological biases in their studies.”