Diet, metabolites, and “western-lifestyle” inflammatory diseases
Open accessAbstract
One explanation for the increased incidence of allergies, asthma, and even some autoimmune diseases has been the hygiene hypothesis. However, recent studies also highlight an important role for diet and bacterial metabolites in controlling various immune pathways, including gut and immune homeostasis, regulatory T cell biology, and inflammation. Dietary-related metabolites engage "metabolite-sensing" G-protein-coupled receptors, such as GPR43, GPR41, GPR109A, GPR120, and GPR35. These receptors are expressed on immune cells and some gut epithelial cells and generally mediate a direct anti-inflammatory effect. Insufficient intake of "healthy foodstuffs" adversely affects the production of bacterial metabolites. These metabolites and those derived directly from food drive beneficial downstream effects on immune pathways. We propose that insufficient exposure to dietary and bacterial metabolites might underlie the development of inflammatory disorders in Western countries. This review highlights what is currently known about diet, metabolites, and their associated immune pathways in relation to the development of inflammatory disease.
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Gut microbial production of short-chain fatty acids from dietary fiber can suppress the development of several inflammatory, autoimmune, and allergic diseases in experimental animal data.
“Accumulating experimental animal data indicate that gut microbial production of these short-chain fatty acids from dietary fiber can suppress the development of several inflammatory, autoimmune, and allergic disease (92).”
From Health Benefits of the Mediterranean Diet: Metabolic and Molecular Mechanisms (2018) · cites this paper as [92]
Some of the beneficial effects of microbiome-derived metabolites are thought to be mediated by binding to specific G-protein-coupled receptors expressed on enteroendocrine and immune cells.
“Some of the beneficial effects of these microbiome-derived metabolites are thought to be mediated by the binding to specific G-protein–coupled receptors expressed on enteroendocrine and immune cells (92).”
From Health Benefits of the Mediterranean Diet: Metabolic and Molecular Mechanisms (2018) · cites this paper as [92]
Multigenerational exposure to a Western diet poor in 'microbiota-accessible carbohydrates' results in the extinction of specific bacterial lineages.
“In contrast, multigenerational exposure to a Western diet poor in “microbiota-accessible carbohydrates” result in the extinction of specific bacterial lineages, which might negatively influence the maturation and function of the immune system, and increase the risk of developing a range of metabolic, inflammatory, allergic, and autoimmune diseases (92,94,98).”
From Health Benefits of the Mediterranean Diet: Metabolic and Molecular Mechanisms (2018) · cites this paper as [92]
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Treatment of distal ulcerative colitis with short-chain fatty acid enemas a placebo-controlled trial
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Dietary influences on intestinal immunity
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Obesity and the lung: 4 {middle dot} Obesity and asthma
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Metabolites from intestinal microbes shape Treg
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Dietary Cycloinulooligosaccharides Enhance Intestinal Immunoglobulin A Production in Mice
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Parada Venegas, D., De la Fuente, M. K., Landskron, G., González, M. J., Quera, R., Dijkstra, G., Harmsen, H. J. M., Faber, K. N., & Hermoso, M. A. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.00277 · Cited by 3,820 · see citing works
“In colonocytes (5), butyrate is β-oxidized to Acetyl-CoA and constitutes”
BackgroundGut microbiota, metabolites and host immunity
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Prebiotics: Definition, Types, Sources, Mechanisms, and Clinical Applications
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Self-citationImpact of the Gut Microbiota on Intestinal Immunity Mediated by Tryptophan Metabolism
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“Recent studies have emphasized the profound effects of diet and nutrients on the localization and composition of the gutmicrobiota as well as on the connection between the gut microbiota and immunological pathways (Thorburn et al., 2014).”
BackgroundPromoting Health and Longevity through Diet: From Model Organisms to Humans
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“G-protein-coupled receptors expressed by enteroendocrine and immune cells may be important mediators of the effects of the microbiome (Thorburn et al., 2014).”
InfluentialLinking the Human Gut Microbiome to Inflammatory Cytokine Production Capacity
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Western Diet Triggers NLRP3-Dependent Innate Immune Reprogramming
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“Alterations in diets can have deleterious effects on immune responses and drive the development of a range of inflammatory diseases (Thorburn et al., 2014).”
BackgroundGut Microbiome: Profound Implications for Diet and Disease
Hills, R. D., Pontefract, B., Mishcon, H. R., Black, C. A., Sutton, S. C., & Theberge, C. R. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11071613 · Cited by 1,107 · see citing works
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Self-citationMicrobiota metabolite short chain fatty acids, GPCR, and inflammatory bowel diseases
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“SCFA might activate NALP6 through the GPCR pathway, further promoting gut goblet cells to secret mucus, which is an important barrier to separate the bacteria and epithelial cells [53, 54].”
BackgroundMicrobes, Metabolites, and the Gut-Lung Axis
Dang, A. T., & Marsland, B. J. (2019) · Mucosal Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41385-019-0160-6 · Cited by 1,028 · see citing works
“Signaling through these transmembrane receptors linked to regular G proteins is associated with an inflammatory effect through activation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases, phosphoinositide 3 (PI3K)-kinases, and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR).(82) Alternatively, signal transduction pathways involving th…”
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Microbial Regulation of Host Physiology by Short-chain Fatty Acids
van der Hee, B., & Wells, J. M. (2021) · Trends in Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.tim.2021.02.001 · Cited by 988 · see citing works
Influence of Maternal Obesity on the Long-Term Health of Offspring
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“39 There is preliminary evidence in humans that dietary manipulation of the maternal microbiome in pregnancy with prebiotic fibre has beneficial effects for both offspring immune function and metabolism (reviewed in [40]).”
Microbial genes and pathways in inflammatory bowel disease
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Health Benefits of the Mediterranean Diet: Metabolic and Molecular Mechanisms
Tosti, V., Bertozzi, B., & Fontana, L. (2018) · The Journals of Gerontology: Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glx227 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
“Accumulating experimental animal data indicate that gut microbial production of these short-chain fatty acids from dietary fiber can suppress the development of several inflammatory, autoimmune, and allergic disease (92).”
The role of short-chain fatty acids in immunity, inflammation and metabolism
Yao, Y., Cai, X. T., Fei, W., Ye, Y., Zhao, M., & Zheng, C. (2020) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1854675 · Cited by 776 · see citing works
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Self-citationShort chain fatty acids: Microbial metabolites for gut-brain axis signalling
O’Riordan, K. J., Collins, M., Moloney, G. M., Knox, E. G., Aburto, M. R., Fülling, C., Morley, S. J., Clarke, G. A., Schellekens, H., & Cryan, J. F. (2022) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2022.111572 · Cited by 742 · see citing works
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“…of dietary fiber in the western world is well below the recommended levels, and we have argued previously that insufficient intake of dietary fiber may contribute to a range of ‘‘western lifestyle’’ inflammatory diseases (Macia et al., 2012;Maslowski andMackay, 2011; Thorburn et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPathogenesis of autoimmune disease
Pisetsky, D. S. (2023) · Nature Reviews Nephrology · doi:10.1038/s41581-023-00720-1 · Cited by 656 · see citing works
Pro- and anti-inflammatory effects of short chain fatty acids on immune and endothelial cells
Li, M., van Esch, B. C. A. M., Wagenaar, G. T. M., Garssen, J., Folkerts, G., & Henricks, P. A. J. (2018) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2018.05.003 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
GPCR-Mediated Signaling of Metabolites
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Benefits of short-chain fatty acids and their receptors in inflammation and carcinogenesis
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A Comprehensive Review on the Role of the Gut Microbiome in Human Neurological Disorders
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Immune mediators in the brain and peripheral tissues in autism spectrum disorder
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High levels of butyrate and propionate in early life are associated with protection against atopy
Roduit, C., Frei, R., Ferstl, R., Loeliger, S., Westermann, P., Rhyner, C., Schiavi, E., Barcik, W., Rodríguez‐Pérez, N., Wawrzyniak, M., et al. (2018) · Allergy · doi:10.1111/all.13660 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
“One of the lifestyle factors thought to be important is the diet.(1) Nutritional factors and their interaction with the gut microbiota influence immunological processes, especially early in life.”
BackgroundSystemic short chain fatty acids limit antitumor effect of CTLA-4 blockade in hosts with cancer
Coutzac, C., Jouniaux, J.-M., Paci, A., Schmidt, J., Mallardo, D., Seck, A., Asvatourian, V., Cassard, L., Saulnier, P., Lacroix, L., et al. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-16079-x · Cited by 513 · see citing works
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Microbiome and Anticancer Immunosurveillance
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The gut-skin axis in health and disease: A paradigm with therapeutic implications
O'Neill, C. A., Monteleone, G., McLaughlin, J. T., & Paus, R. (2016) · BioEssays · doi:10.1002/bies.201600008 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
“There is also good evidence that gut endocrine cells and their function are abnormal in gut infections [99, 100], in both coeliac and Crohn’s diseases [101], and also with changing gut function during ageing [102, 103].”
BackgroundDiet and the Microbiota–Gut–Brain Axis: Sowing the Seeds of Good Mental Health
Berding, K., Vlckova, K., Marx, W., Schellekens, H., Stanton, C., Clarke, G., Jacka, F., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa181 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Age‐related changes in the gut microbiota influence systemic inflammation and stroke outcome
Spychala, M. S., Venna, V. R., Jandzinski, M., Doran, S. J., Durgan, D. J., Ganesh, B. P., Ajami, N. J., Putluri, N., Graf, J., Bryan, R. M., et al. (2018) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.25250 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
“Working through either or both of these pathways, SCFAs stabilize the gut epithelial barrier, modulate cytokine secretion, alter Tlymphocyte populations, increase the protective mucus layer, modulate antibody secretion, and inhibit nuclear factor kappa B.(44) Additionally, SCFAs mediate the maturation and function of…”
BackgroundDietary fiber and SCFAs in the regulation of mucosal immunity
Tan, J. K., Macia, L., & Mackay, C. R. (2022) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2022.11.007 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
Self-citationRegulation of short-chain fatty acids in the immune system
Liu, X., Shao, J.-H., Liao, Y.-T., Wang, L., Yuan, J., Dong, P.-J., Liu, Z., He, D., Li, C., & Zhang, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1186892 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
“C2 activates the GPR41 and GPR43 receptors and their downstream ERK2/1 and MAPK signal ing pathways and increases the product ion of proinflammatory factors and chemokines (72, 73) (Figure 1).”
BackgroundAmit, I., Winter, D. R., & Jung, S. (2015) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/ni.3325 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Beyond gut feelings: how the gut microbiota regulates blood pressure
Marques, F. Z., Mackay, C. R., & Kaye, D. M. (2017) · Nature Reviews Cardiology · doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2017.120 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Self-citationMediterranean diet and health status: Active ingredients and pharmacological mechanisms
Schwingshackl, L., Morze, J., & HOFFMANN, G. E. (2019) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.14778 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Diet in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
Lee, D. Y., Albenberg, L. G., Compher, C. W., Baldassano, R. N., Piccoli, D. A., Lewis, J. D., & Wu, G. D. (2015) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2015.01.007 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
The impact of the gut microbiome on extra-intestinal autoimmune diseases
Miyauchi, E., Shimokawa, C., Steimle, A., Desai, M. S., & Ohno, H. (2022) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-022-00727-y · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Epigenetics and DOHaD: From Basics to Birth and Beyond
Bianco-Miotto, T., Craig, J. M., Gasser, Y. P., van Dijk, S. J., & Ozanne, S. E. (2017) · Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease · doi:10.1017/s2040174417000733 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
“In humans, FFAR2 (also known as GPR43) is activated by acetate, propionate, and to some extent, butyrate; FFAR3 (GRP41) is activated by butyrate and propionate, and NIACR (the niacin receptor or GPR109A) is activated by butyrate.(49,64,65) Cellular levels of specific SCFAs have been associated with DNA methylation lev…”
BackgroundMicrobiome-modulated metabolites at the interface of host immunity
Blacher, E., Levy, M., Tatirovsky, E., & Elinav, E. (2017) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1601247 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
“Trp is known to undergo metabolism by Lactobacilli, giving rise to indole-3-aldehyde, which can bind to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), followed by its transport through the epithelial cell layer by a transporter containing angiotensin I converting enzyme 2 (9, 31).”
BackgroundLoss of Gut Microbiota Alters Immune System Composition and Cripples Postinfarction Cardiac Repair
Tang, T. W. H., Chen, H.-C., Chen, C.-Y., Yen, C. Y. T., Lin, C.-J., Prajnamitra, R. P., Chen, L.-L., Ruan, S.-C., Lin, J.-H., Lin, P.-J., et al. (2019) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.118.035235 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Role of the gut microbiota in anticancer therapy: from molecular mechanisms to clinical applications
Zhao, L.-Y., Mei, J.-X., Yu, G., Lei, L., Zhang, W.-H., Liu, K., Chen, X.-L., Kołat, D., Yang, K., & Hu, J.-K. (2023) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-023-01406-7 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
“Moreover, Lactobacilli can convert tryptophan into indole-3-aldehyde that acts as an AhR agonist by increasing the expression of IL-22 and enhancing the activity of Th17 cells.(243) TMAO is metabolized in the liver from trimethylamine (TMA) synthesized by host gut microbes,(244) and it has been demonstrated to increas…”
BackgroundImpact of Mediterranean Diet on Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases and Longevity
Dominguez, L. J., Bella, G. D., Veronese, N., & Barbagallo, M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13062028 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
“It has been shown that high dietary fiber intake promotes modifications of gut microbiota in both rodents and humans, with decreased Firmicutes and increased Bacteroidetes, which produces high levels of SCFAs, related with several inflammatory, autoimmune, and allergic diseases [76].”
BackgroundConnecting the immune system, systemic chronic inflammation and the gut microbiome: the role of sex
Rizzetto, L., Fava, F., Tuohy, K. M., & Selmi, C. (2018) · Journal of Autoimmunity · doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2018.05.008 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Finding the Missing Links among Metabolites, Microbes, and the Host
Dorrestein, P. C., Mazmanian, S. K., & Knight, R. (2014) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2014.05.015 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Microbiome in the gut-skin axis in atopic dermatitis
Lee, S.-Y., Lee, E., Park, Y. M., & Hong, S.-J. (2018) · Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research · doi:10.4168/aair.2018.10.4.354 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
“SCFAs produced by the gut microbiome, such as Akkerman sia muciniphila,(31) play important roles in inflammatory diseases, such as AD, which might explain the association between dietary feeding, microbiome, and the skin immune system.(23,32)”
BackgroundThe Role of the Immune System in Metabolic Health and Disease
Zmora, N., Bashiardes, S., Levy, M., & Elinav, E. (2017) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2017.02.006 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
“…differentiation, anti-inflammatory processes (Singh et al., 2014), and inflammasome activation (Macia et al., 2015); and impact the hematopoietic repertoire (Trompette et al., 2014) through their signaling via G protein-coupled receptors, such as GPR41, GPR43, andGPR109A (Thorburn et al., 2014).”
BackgroundThe Healthy Human Blood Microbiome: Fact or Fiction?
Castillo, D. J., Rifkin, R. F., Cowan, D. A., & Potgieter, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2019.00148 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Biological Function of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Its Regulation on Intestinal Health of Poultry
Liu, L., Li, Q., Yang, Y., & Guo, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2021.736739 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
“The studies showed that the activation of GPR41/43 by SCFAs resulted in the activation of downstream mTOR, PI3K, or MAPK signaling pathways, thus exerting pro-inflammatory effects (114, 115).”
BackgroundA diet-sensitive commensal Lactobacillus strain Mediates TLR7-dependent systemic autoimmunity
Zegarra-Ruiz, D. F., El Beidaq, A., Iñiguez, A. J., Lubrano Di Ricco, M., Manfredo Vieira, S., Ruff, W. E., Mubiru, D., Fine, R. L., Sterpka, J., Greiling, T. M., et al. (2019) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2018.11.009 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
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Molecular and cellular mechanisms of food allergy and food tolerance
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“Therefore, SCFAs such as butyrate, propionate, or acetate have recently been considered as potential therapeutic tool to modulate inflammatory responses (10, 11).”
BackgroundMetabolite-Sensing G Protein–Coupled Receptors—Facilitators of Diet-Related Immune Regulation
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“Bacteroidetes (in particular, Bacteroides acidifaciens) have an important role in gut microbiota through the production of high levels of short-chain fatty acids, including acetate, propionate, or butyrate, in fact many experimental animal data suggest that their high levels can discontinue the progress of several inf…”
The Protective Role of Butyrate against Obesity and Obesity-Related Diseases
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“This variety of local metabolites affect on mucosal and systemic immune maturation and are involved in multiple immune signaling pathways with the participation of macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), T cells, and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) (110, 111).”
BackgroundEvolution, human-microbe interactions, and life history plasticity
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“Some microbiota-derived signals (Figure 3), notably those that signal via ‘‘metabolite-sensing’’ G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) or by inhibiting histone deacetylase (HDAC) and so driving epigenetic changes, are equally relevant to metabolism and to immunoregulation.((20)) This close link might be due to the large…”
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Kidney disease and obesity: epidemiology, mechanisms and treatment
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“Inoculation of SCFAs producing bacteria can increase Bacteroidetes abundances while reducing Firmicutes, and improve balance in the gut bacterial structure.(34) Overall, these data have led to emerging interests in the regulatory function of SCFAs in a wide range of immune cells, including both innate and adaptive cel…”
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“8 Effects of FMT on SCFA Production SCFAs act as key bacterial metabolites, mainly composed of acetate, propionate and butyrate in the intestine, which are beneficial for human health [58, 59].”
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An exposome perspective: Early-life events and immune development in a changing world
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“Interestingly, 19 of 90 subjects had discordant OTU type and metabotype, suggesting that other factors besides the microbiome such as diet also could influence the metabolome.(49) A strength of this study was that its central finding (a disease-related microbial community type detectable in healthy subjects) also was…”
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“Hence, the principal activities of SCFAs are the following [51]: (1) triggering of Foxp3+ T regulatory (Treg) cells and tolerance; (2) induction of IgA secretion from B cells; (3) “competitive exclusion”, due to high-fiber diet that spreads commensal bacteria and limits the access of pathogenic bacteria to the gut epi…”
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Role of Short Chain Fatty Acid Receptors in Intestinal Physiology and Pathophysiology
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- Authors
- Thorburn, A. N., Macia, L., & Mackay, C. R.
- Affiliations
- Monash University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Mackay, Charles R.
- Venue
- Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-06
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 833-842
- ISSN
- 1074-7613 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2008993230
- Cited by
- 879
- References
- 103
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 114 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 67 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 7.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council
- National Health and Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Keywords
- diet, bacterial metabolites, Western lifestyle, inflammatory diseases, hygiene hypothesis, G protein-coupled receptors, GPR43, GPR41, GPR109A, GPR120, GPR35, gut immune homeostasis, regulatory T cells, anti-inflammatory signaling, dietary metabolites, allergy, asthma, autoimmune disease
- MeSH terms
- Autoimmune Diseases, Bacterial Proteins, Diet, Humans, Hypersensitivity, Inflammation, Life Style, Gastrointestinal Tract, Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled, Metabolome, Microbiota
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