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Levels of processing: A framework for memory research
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In the citing paper
“Such findings are in line with the levels of processing (LOP) theory of human memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972), which posits that memory for an item depends on the level or relative depth at which the item is processed in a learner's cognitive system.”
From Effects of sentence writing in second language lexical acquisition (2004) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart, 1972
In the citing paper
“Third, interactive tasks in games can promote deeper levels of processing, increasing the retention of vocabulary knowledge (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Hulstijn and Laufer, 2001; Keating, 2008; Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001).”
From Incidental vocabulary learning from digital games: the predictive role of game playing time, foreign language motivation, and anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart, 1972
In the citing paper
“They postulated that the strength of a memory is a positive function of the depth to which the stimulus is analyzed.”
From Supporting Novice to Expert Transitions in User Interfaces (2015) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart 1972
In the citing paper
“In seeking to exploit findings from psychology suggesting that”
From Supporting Novice to Expert Transitions in User Interfaces (2015) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart 1972
In the citing paper
“One might consider that such released resources which come along with externalisations (Kirsh, 2010) could serve a deeper elaboration of the processed information (Sweller et al., 1998). In return, such a deeper elaboration could cause stronger memory representations (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Craik & Lockhart, 1972
In the citing paper
“Learning is a dynamic process; it takes place during processing, as Hebb ~1949!, Craik and Lockhart ~1972!, Pienemann ~1998!, and O'Grady ~2003! have all reminded us from their different domains+”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart ~1972!
In the citing paper
“It is fundamental for humans to learn knowledge by accumulating important information and abstracting high-level concepts [85]”
From A Survey on the Memory Mechanism of Large Language Model-based Agents (2025) · cites this paper as [85]
In the citing paper
“In their Levels of Processing theory, Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that what we think of as memory is actually the processing of information, including the perception of incoming information.”
From Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation. (2020) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart (1972)
In the citing paper
“These recoding strategies may increase the depth of processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), permit the generation of multiple representations for each item (Paivio, 1990) and allow multiple items to be formed into single chunks (Cowan, Chen, & Rouder, 2004).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Craik & Lockhart, 1972
In the citing paper
“At present, we find only one strategy for which clear evidence exists: the strategy of processing evidence deeply (cf.Craik & Lockhart, 1972).”
From The role of anomalous data in knowledge acquisition: A theoretical framework and implications for science instruction. (1993) · cites this paper as Craik & Lockhart, 1972
Citations
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The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
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Rundus, D. (1971) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0031185 · Cited by 797
Abstraction and The Process of Recognition
Posner, M. I. (1970) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60397-7 · Cited by 379
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Demeter, E. (2016) · Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s40473-016-0072-7 · Cited by 21
Episodic and Autobiographical Memory
Marsh, E. J., & Roediger, H. L. (2012) · Handbook of Psychology, Second Edition · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop204017 · Cited by 18
Wiklund-Hörnqvist, C., Stillesjö, S., Andersson, M., Jonsson, B., & Nyberg, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.797395 · Cited by 12
“Such findings might support the idea that retrieval practice in itself prevents surface learning (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) as it requires the learner to actively engage in the task at hand, and more efficiently allocates the attention to stored memory representations regardless of NFC.”
BackgroundConditions and consequences of maintenance rehearsal.
Wixted, J. T. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.17.5.963 · Cited by 11
Implementing distributed practice in statistics courses: Benefits for retention and transfer.
Ebersbach, M., & Barzagar Nazari, K. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/h0101860 · Cited by 11
Psychoticism and attentional flexibility
Szymura, B., Śmigasiewicz, K., & Corr, P. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.023 · Cited by 10
Assessing long-term forgetting: A pragmatic approach
Della Sala, S., Baddeley, A., Peng, N., & Logie, R. (2024) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2023.11.009 · Cited by 9
Yu, Y., Zhao, W., Li, A., Shanks, D. R., Hu, X., Luo, L., & Yang, C. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10024-4 · Cited by 2
Retrieval Practice Versus Elaborative Encoding: A Systematic and Meta-analytic Review
Gonçalves, A. D. O., Muniz, B. F. B., & Jaeger, A. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10076-6 · Cited by 1
Akbulut, S., Şimşek, B., Direkci, B., Koparan, B., Gülmez, M., Şimşek, E. E., & Kayır, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798613
“Third, interactive tasks in games can promote deeper levels of processing, increasing the retention of vocabulary knowledge (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Hulstijn and Laufer, 2001; Keating, 2008; Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001).”
Grounding Agent Memory in Contextual Intent
Yang, R., Jiang, Y., Jiang, Y., Kargupta, P., Zhang, Y., & Han, J. (2026) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2026 · doi:10.18653/v1/2026.findings-acl.584 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Toronto (CA)
- ORCID
- Craik, Fergus I.M.
- Venue
- Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1972-12
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 671-684
- ISSN
- 0022-5371 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1990451873
- Cited by
- 9,566
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 233 · 2025: 286 · 2024: 277 · 2023: 258 · 2022: 282 · 2021: 291 · 2020: 322 · 2019: 318 · 2018: 303 · 2017: 307 · 2016: 260 · 2015: 337 · 2014: 327 · 2013: 304 · 2012: 319
- FWCI
- 44.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- levels of processing, human memory, verbal learning
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