The two disciplines of scientific psychology.

Construct validity in psychological tests.

Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0040957 · Cited by 11,195

Perception and the Representative Design of Psychological Experiments

Brunswik, E. (1956) · doi:10.1525/9780520350519 · Cited by 2,974

The formation of learning sets.

Harlow, H. F. (1949) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0062474 · Cited by 1,959

Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview

Zimmerman, B. J. (2002) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2 · Cited by 10,197

Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action.

Jick, T. D. (1979) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2392366 · Cited by 7,103

Likert scales, levels of measurement, and the “laws” of statistics

Norman, G. (2010) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-010-9222-y · Cited by 4,850

If it changes it must be a process: study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination

Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.150 · Cited by 4,845

A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure

Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.246 · Cited by 3,889

Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development

John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x · Cited by 2,381

Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content.

Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338 · Cited by 2,319

Learning Styles

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x · Cited by 2,147

Reasoning ability is (little more than) working-memory capacity?!

Kyllonen, P. C., & Christal, R. E. (1990) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(05)80012-1 · Cited by 1,810

Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits

Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.2.219 · Cited by 1,829

A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description.

Block, J. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.187 · Cited by 1,682

What one intelligence test measures: A theoretical account of the processing in the Raven Progressive Matrices Test.

Carpenter, P. A., Just, M. A., & Shell, P. (1990) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.97.3.404 · Cited by 1,648

The reliability paradox: Why robust cognitive tasks do not produce reliable individual differences

Hedge, C., Powell, G., & Sumner, P. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0935-1 · Cited by 1,457

The theoretical status of latent variables.

Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. J., & van Heerden, J. (2003) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.110.2.203 · Cited by 1,566

The stability of behavior: I. On predicting most of the people much of the time.

Epstein, S. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.7.1097 · Cited by 1,468

Network analysis of multivariate data in psychological science

Borsboom, D., Deserno, M. K., Rhemtulla, M., Epskamp, S., Fried, E. I., McNally, R. J., Robinaugh, D. J., Perugini, M., Dalege, J., Costantini, G., et al. (2021) · Nature Reviews Methods Primers · doi:10.1038/s43586-021-00055-w · Cited by 1,371

The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory.

Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.104 · Cited by 1,307

Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence

Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005 · Cited by 1,223

Comparing the Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients across distributions and sample sizes: a tutorial using simulations and empirical data

de Winter, J. C. F., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2016) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000079 · Cited by 1,201

Executive Attention, Working Memory Capacity, and a Two-Factor Theory of Cognitive Control

Engle, R. W., & Kane, M. J. (2003) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)44005-x · Cited by 1,104

Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence

Gray, J. R., Chabris, C. F., & Braver, T. S. (2003) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1014 · Cited by 1,080

How Many Participants Do We Have to Include in Properly Powered Experiments? A Tutorial of Power Analysis with Reference Tables

Brysbaert, M. (2019) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.72 · Cited by 996

Working Memory and Intelligence: The Same or Different Constructs?

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.30 · Cited by 969

Behavioral Development and Construct Validity: The Principle of Aggregation

Rushton, J. P., Brainerd, C. J., & Pressley, M. (1983) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.94.1.18 · Cited by 940

Evolutionary Personality Psychology

Buss, D. M. (1991) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.002331 · Cited by 930

Dimensions of personality: 16, 5 or 3?—Criteria for a taxonomic paradigm

Eysenck, H. J. (1991) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(91)90144-z · Cited by 848

The Person–Situation Debate Revisited: Effect of Situation Strength and Trait Activation on the Validity of the Big Five Personality Traits in Predicting Job Performance

Judge, T. A., & Zapata, C. P. (2015) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2010.0837 · Cited by 738

What is the test–retest reliability of common task-functional MRI measures? New empirical evidence and a meta-analysis

Elliott, M. L., Knodt, A. R., Ireland, D., Morris, M. L., Poulton, R., Ramrakha, S., Sison, M. L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Hariri, A. R. (2020) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620916786 · Cited by 714

A review and synthesis of situational strength in the organizational sciences

Meyer, R. D., Dalal, R. S., & Hermida, R. (2010) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206309349309 · Cited by 692

Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses.

Engle, R. W., Cantor, J., & Carullo, J. J. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.18.5.972 · Cited by 626

Belief and recollection of autobiographical memories

Rubin, D. C., Schrauf, R. W., & Greenberg, D. L. (2003) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196443 · Cited by 612

A multidimensional meta-analysis of treatments for depression, panic, and generalized anxiety disorder: An empirical examination of the status of empirically supported therapies

Westen, D., & Morrison, K. (2001) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.69.6.875 · Cited by 635

On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.

Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038 · Cited by 597

Can Teacher Education Make a Difference?

Brouwer, N., & Korthagen, F. (2005) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312042001153 · Cited by 561

Staying on the job: The frontal lobes control individual performance variability

Stuss, D. T. (2003) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awg237 · Cited by 554

The social costs of emotional suppression: a prospective study of the transition to college

Srivastava, S., Tamir, M., McGonigal, K. M., John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014755 · Cited by 504

Rating scales as outcome measures for clinical trials in neurology: problems, solutions, and recommendations

Hobart, J. C., Cano, S. J., Zajicek, J. P., & Thompson, A. J. (2007) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(07)70290-9 · Cited by 495

Intelligence

Deary, I. J. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100353 · Cited by 467

Thirty years of research on race differences in cognitive ability.

Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2005) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.235 · Cited by 457

Looking forward but learning from our past: Potential challenges to developing authentic leadership theory and authentic leaders

Cooper, C. D., Scandura, T. A., & Schriesheim, C. A. (2005) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.008 · Cited by 438

Treatment selection in depression.

Cohen, Z. D., & DeRubeis, R. J. (2018) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050817-084746 · Cited by 435

How similar are fluid cognition and general intelligence? A developmental neuroscience perspective on fluid cognition as an aspect of human cognitive ability

Blair, C. (2006) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x06009034 · Cited by 434

Deliberate practice: Is that all it takes to become an expert?

Hambrick, D. Z., Oswald, F. L., Altmann, E. M., Meinz, E. J., Gobet, F., & Campitelli, G. (2014) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.04.001 · Cited by 370

Introduction to the Special Section on Cognitive Abilities: 100 Years After Spearman's (1904) "'General Intelligence,' Objectively Determined and Measured".

Lubinski, D. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.96 · Cited by 370

Working Memory and Executive Attention: A Revisit

Engle, R. W. (2018) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617720478 · Cited by 339

From a distance: Implications of spontaneous self-distancing for adaptive self-reflection.

Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019205 · Cited by 347

Reaction time in differential and developmental research: A review and commentary on the problems and alternatives.

Draheim, C., Mashburn, C. A., Martin, J. D., & Engle, R. W. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000192 · Cited by 322

Spatial ability and STEM: A sleeping giant for talent identification and development

Lubinski, D. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.022 · Cited by 314

The nature of the black–white difference on various psychometric tests: Spearman's hypothesis

Jensen, A. R. (1985) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00020392 · Cited by 284

Adaptive educational hypermedia accommodating learning styles: A content analysis of publications from 2000 to 2011

Akbulut, Y., & Cardak, C. S. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.008 · Cited by 269

Research on psychotherapy efficacy and effectiveness: Between Scylla and Charybdis?

Nathan, P. E., Stuart, S. P., & Dolan, S. L. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.964 · Cited by 258

Establishing Causality Using Longitudinal Hierarchical Linear Modeling: An Illustration Predicting Achievement From Self-Control

Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & May, H. (2010) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550609359707 · Cited by 234

Working memory capacity and attention network test performance

Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1224 · Cited by 220

HUMAN ABILITIES

Sternberg, R. J., & Kaufman, J. C. (1998) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.479 · Cited by 213

Attention Control: A Cornerstone of Higher-Order Cognition

Burgoyne, A. P., & Engle, R. W. (2020) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721420969371 · Cited by 186

Cognitive plasticity in adulthood and old age: Gauging the generality of cognitive intervention effects

Noack, H., Lövdén, M., Schmiedek, F., & Lindenberger, U. (2009) · Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience · doi:10.3233/rnn-2009-0496 · Cited by 180

Fads, fashions, and folderol in psychology

Dunnette, M. D. (1966) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0023535 · Cited by 176

Aptitude Theory: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

Snow, R. E. (1992) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2701_3 · Cited by 174

Interactions Between Individual Differences, Treatments, and Structures in SLA

DeKeyser, R. (2012) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00712.x · Cited by 167

Assessing inter individual differences with task related functional neuroimaging

Lebreton, M., Bavard, S., Daunizeau, J., & Palminteri, S. (2019) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-019-0681-8 · Cited by 160

An A–Z of Applied Linguistics Research Methods

Loewen, S., & Plonsky, L. (2016) · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-40322-3 · Cited by 156

A meta-analytic investigation into the moderating effects of situational strength on the conscientiousness–performance relationship

Meyer, R. D., Dalal, R. S., & Bonaccio, S. (2009) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.602 · Cited by 145

Investigating the paths between working memory, intelligence, knowledge, and complex problem-solving performances via Brunswik symmetry.

Wittmann, W. W., & Süß, H.-M. (2004) · Learning and individual differences: Process, trait, and content determinants. · doi:10.1037/10315-004 · Cited by 139

Capturing specific abilities as a window into human individuality: The example of face recognition

Wilmer, J. B., Germine, L., Chabris, C. F., Chatterjee, G., Gerbasi, M., & Nakayama, K. (2012) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2012.753433 · Cited by 140

Informing and Performing: A Study Comparing Adaptive Learning to Traditional Learning

Coffin Murray, M., & Pérez, J. (2015) · InSITE Conference · doi:10.28945/2140 · Cited by 139

On Traits, Situations, and Their Integration: A Developmental Perspective

Roberts, B. W., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_5 · Cited by 134

Reliving, emotions, and fragmentation in the autobiographical memories of veterans diagnosed with PTSD

Rubin, D. C., Feldman, M. E., & Beckham, J. C. (2004) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.950 · Cited by 132

Stereotype Threat and Group Differences in Test Performance: A Question of Measurement Invariance.

Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & Hessen, D. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.696 · Cited by 126

From Terman to Today: A Century of Findings on Intellectual Precocity

Lubinski, D. (2016) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654316675476 · Cited by 118

Craving and substance use among patients with alcohol, tobacco, cannabis or heroin addiction: a comparison of substance- and person-specific cues

Fatseas, M., Serre, F., Alexandre, J., Debrabant, R., Auriacombe, M., & Swendsen, J. (2015) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12882 · Cited by 117

Utility of intelligence tests for treatment planning, classification, and placement decisions: recent empirical findings and future directions.

Gresham, F. M., & Witt, J. C. (1997) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/h0088961 · Cited by 113

The person versus the situation in leadership

Sternberg, R. J., & Vroom, V. (2002) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(02)00101-7 · Cited by 112

Identifying Academically Gifted English-Language Learners Using Nonverbal Tests: A Comparison of the Raven, NNAT, and CogAT

Lohman, D. F., Korb, K. A., & Lakin, J. M. (2008) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986208321808 · Cited by 109

An Investigation of the Reliability and Standard Error of Measurement of Words Read Correctly Per Minute Using Curriculum-Based Measurement

Poncy, B. C., Skinner, C. H., & Axtell, P. K. (2005) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/073428290502300403 · Cited by 105

An overview of adaptive e-learning systems

Ennouamani, S., & Mahani, Z. (2017) · 2017 Eighth International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Information Systems (ICICIS) · doi:10.1109/intelcis.2017.8260060 · Cited by 105

Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation

Wolf, M. B., & Ackerman, P. L. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.020 · Cited by 101

Individual differences in long-term memory.

Unsworth, N. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000176 · Cited by 99

Do we really become smarter when our fluid-intelligence test scores improve?

Hayes, T. R., Petrov, A. A., & Sederberg, P. B. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.10.005 · Cited by 93

Vicarious Fear Learning Depends on Empathic Appraisals and Trait Empathy

Olsson, A., McMahon, K., Papenberg, G., Zaki, J., Bolger, N., & Ochsner, K. N. (2016) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615604124 · Cited by 92

Evidence-Based Diagnosis and Treatment for Specific Learning Disabilities Involving Impairments in Written and/or Oral Language

Berninger, V. W., & O'Malley May, M. (2011) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219410391189 · Cited by 86

Making sense of learning gain in higher education

Evans, C., Kandiko Howson, C., & Forsythe, A. (2018) · Higher Education Pedagogies · doi:10.1080/23752696.2018.1508360 · Cited by 81

Individual and group differences in adoption studies of IQ.

Turkheimer, E. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.110.3.392 · Cited by 76

An Adaptive e-Learning System for Enhancing Learning Performance: Based on Dynamic Scaffolding Theory

Chen, Y.-S., Wu, C.-H., & Chen, T.-G. (2017) · EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education · doi:10.12973/ejmste/81061 · Cited by 70

If the person–situation debate is really over, why does it still generate so much negative affect?

Lucas, R. E., & Donnellan, M. B. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.02.009 · Cited by 65

The role of foreign language aptitude in a model of school learning

Skehan, P. (1986) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/026553228600300207 · Cited by 64

Individual Differences and Individual Difference: The Essential Difference of Special Education

Deno, S. L. (1990) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/002246699002400205 · Cited by 61

Building a Cognitive Science of Human Variation: Individual Differences in Spatial Navigation

Newcombe, N. S., Hegarty, M., & Uttal, D. (2023) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12626 · Cited by 51

Untitled work

(2004) · Cited by 43

Intelligence and Reasoning

Lohman, D. F., & Lakin, J. M. (2011) · The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977244.022 · Cited by 42

Sustainability: An Enduring Commitment to Success

Grimes, J., Kurns, S., & Tilly III, W. D. (2006) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/02796015.2006.12087988 · Cited by 40

Another look at social psychological aspects of juror bias.

Sealy, A. P. (1981) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf01044762 · Cited by 30

A g Theorist on Why Kovacs and Conway's Process Overlap Theory Amplifies, Not Opposes,g Theory

Gottfredson, L. S. (2016) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2016.1203232 · Cited by 29

Event-related potential variability as a measure of information storage in infant development

Thomas, D. G., Whitaker, E., Crow, C. D., Little, V., Love, L., Lykins, M. S., & Letterman, M. (1997) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565649709540678 · Cited by 24

Military enlistment selection and classification: Moving forward

Rumsey, M. G., & Arabian, J. M. (2014) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1037/mil0000040 · Cited by 7

The black–white factor is g

Gordon, R. A. (1985) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00020501 · Cited by 8

The long-term neglect of long-term memory: Reasons and remedies.

Bahrick, H. P. (2005) · Experimental cognitive psychology and its applications. · doi:10.1037/10895-007 · Cited by 7

How to Fool Yourself With Experiments in Testing Theories in Psychological Research.

Wittmann, W. W., & Klumb, P. L. (2006) · Strengthening research methodology: Psychological measurement and evaluation. · doi:10.1037/11384-010 · Cited by 6

A multi-agent reinforcement learning model of reputation and cooperation in human groups

McKee, K. R., Hughes, E., Zhu, T. O., Chadwick, M. J., Koster, R., Castaneda, A. G., Beattie, C., Graepel, T., Botvinick, M., & Leibo, J. Z. (2021) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2103.04982 · Cited by 5

Individual differences in intelligence and personality guide human social learning

Burtenshaw, T., Walker, B., Gignac, G., Grueter, C. C., & Fay, N. (2026) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2026.113639