Thirty years of research on race differences in cognitive ability.
Abstract
The culture-only (0 % genetic–100 % environmental) and the hereditarian (50% genetic–50 % environmental) models of the causes of mean Black–White differences in cognitive ability are compared and contrasted across 10 categories of evidence: the worldwide distribution of test scores, g factor of mental ability, heritability, brain size and cognitive ability, transracial adoption, racial admixture, regression, related life-history traits, human origins research, and hypothesized environmental variables. The new evidence reviewed here points to some genetic component in Black–White differences in mean IQ. The implication for public policy is that the discrimination model (i.e., Black–White differences in socially valued outcomes will be equal barring discrimination) must be tempered by a distributional model (i.e., Black–White outcomes reflect underlying group characteristics). Section 1: Background Throughout the history of psychology, no question has been so persistent or so resistant to resolution as that of the relative roles of nature and nurture in causing individual and group differences in cognitive ability (Degler, 1991;
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
This estimate of between-group heritability is consistent with Rushton and Jensen's hereditarian model, according to which 50%-80% of African-/European-American cognitive difference is due to genetic differences.
“This estimate of between-group heritability is consistent with Rushton and Jensen's [9] hereditarian model, according to which 50%-80% of the African-/European-American cognitive difference is due to genetic differences.”
From Global Ancestry and Cognitive Ability (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
The above-average mean IQ of severely malnourished East Asian infants adopted into White European homes is more consistent with a genetic than a cultural advantage.
“However, the above-average mean IQ of even severely malnourished East Asian infants adopted into White European homes is more consistent with those infants having a genetic than a cultural advantage over their White European peers.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
The hereditarian hypothesis is that Black-White differences in general intelligence (IQ, or g) are substantially genetic in origin, quantified as 50% genetic and 50% environmental.
“Rushton and Jensen's (2005) hereditarian hypothesis is that Black-White differences in general intelligence (IQ, or the general mental ability factor, g ) are 'substantially' genetic in origin, which they quantify as 50% genetic and 50% environmental.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
By undermining culture-only explanations of racial inequality, the hereditarian hypothesis undermines the moral legitimacy of all rationales for racial equalization that posit White misbehavior as its cause.
“By undermining culture-only explanations of racial inequality, the 'provisional truth' of Rushton and Jensen's (2005) hereditarian hypothesis thereby undermines the moral legitimacy of all rationales for racial equalization that posit White misbehavior as its cause.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
The major facts from Rushton and Jensen's Sections 3-6 and 10-12 have been replicated many times with independent data and are consistent with hereditarian theory but contradict culture-only theory.
“The following major facts from Rushton and Jensen's (2005) Sections 3-6 and 10-12 have been replicated many times, and all with independent sources of data. All are consistent with hereditarian theory but contradict culture-only theory:”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
The three-way race pattern for IQ/g differences has been replicated with reaction/inspection time and brain size, both highly heritable and correlated with g.
“So far, the three-way race pattern for IQ/ g differences has been replicated with reaction/inspection time and brain size, both of which are highly heritable and correlated with g , as well as with a large collection of purely physical attributes (e.g., twinning).”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Evidence contradicts the culture-only theory's prediction that group differences in cognitive ability should track cultural practices and socioeconomic advantage.
“Evidence contradicting the culture-only theory's prediction that group differences in cognitive ability should, in essence, track group differences in identifiable cultural practices and socioeconomic advantage (Section 12).”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
The most g-loaded tests predict school and job performance best, and predict performance equally well for Blacks and Whites in the US and South Africa.
“The most g -loaded tests predict school and job performance best, and they predict performance equally well for Blacks and Whites in both the United States and South Africa.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Natural variation in environments fails to alter the common developmental processes by which abilities are assembled in different races.
“Natural variation in environments likewise fails to alter the common developmental processes by which abilities are assembled in different races.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Rushton and Jensen (2005) make no recommendations for specific policies and correctly argue that the hereditarian hypothesis implies none in particular.
“Rushton and Jensen (2005) make no recommendations for specific policies and correctly argue that the hereditarian hypothesis implies none in particular.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Worldwide Black-White-East Asian differences exist in IQ, reaction time, and brain size, with Whites having intermediate scores.
“Worldwide Black-White-East Asian differences in IQ (Section 3), reaction time (Section 4), and brain size, with Whites having the intermediate scores (Section 6);”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Extreme deprivation of the sort humans have always faced seldom permanently impairs cognitive ability once conditions are rectified.
“As the studies of malnourished East Asian adoptees illustrate, extreme deprivation of the sort that humans have always had to contend with (e.g., starvation, infectious disease) seldom permanently impairs cognitive ability to any substantial degree once conditions are rectified.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
The most direct tests of genetic versus environmental effects on mental ability-transracial adoption, racial admixture, and behavior genetic modeling-have been uncommon or fraught with ambiguity.
“The most direct individual tests of genetic versus environmental effects on mental ability-transracial adoption (Section 7), racial admixture (Section 8), and behavior genetic modeling of mean group differences (Section 5)-have either been uncommon or fraught with ambiguity.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
IQ correlates about .2 with skull size and about .4 with in vivo brain volume.
“Small (.2) and moderate (.4) correlations of IQ, respectively, with skull size and in vivo brain volume (Section 6);”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Rushton and Jensen (2005) have presented a compelling case that their 50%-50% hereditarian hypothesis is more plausible than the culture-only hypothesis.
“In summary, Rushton and Jensen (2005) have presented a compelling case that their 50%-50% hereditarian hypothesis is more plausible than the cultureonly hypothesis.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Worldwide Black-White-East Asian mean differences exist in a large suite of biological and social variables, with the three races always in the same rank order.
“Worldwide Black-White-East Asian mean differences in a large suite of biological variables (e.g., twinning, gestation time, sex ratio at birth) and social variables (e.g., law abidingness, marital stability), with the three races always in the same rank order (Section 10);”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
g theory can predict how large racial disparities in achievement will be in different settings, depending on demands for g and IQ distributions.
“As Rushton and Jensen (2005) suggest, g theory can predict fairly accurately how large the racial disparities in achievement will be in different settings, depending on their demands for g and the IQ distributions of the groups involved.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Cross-race identity of g factors and input-output achievement covariance matrices indicates commonality in cognitive architecture, contradicting predictions that different cultures create different intelligences.
“This commonality in cognitive architecture is indicated, for instance, by cross-race identity of g factors and input-output achievement covariance matrices (Section 5). This commonality also contradicts predictions that different cultures create different intelligences.”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
There has been a genetic divergence (quantitative, not qualitative) of world population groups during evolution.
“A genetic divergence (quantitative, not qualitative) of world population (i.e., racial) groups during evolution (Section 11); and”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
The g factor is highly heritable within races and has replicated metabolic, electrical, and structural correlates in the brain.
“The g factor is highly heritable within races and also has replicated metabolic, electrical, and structural correlates in the brain, most of them also known to be heritable (these studies are mostly with Whites).”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
The heritability of IQ rises with age within races, and shared environmental effects on IQ virtually disappear by adolescence.
“The rising heritability of IQ with age (within races) and the virtual disappearance by adolescence of any shared environmental effects on IQ (e.g., parental income, education, child-rearing practices; Section 5);”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Different IQ subtests' g loadings correlate .6-.7 with the magnitude of Black-White-East Asian mean differences and with measures of biological/genetic rootedness.
“A moderately high correlation (usually .6-.7) of different IQ subtests' g loadings, not only with the magnitude of Black-White-East Asian mean differences on those subtests (Section 6) but also with measures of those subtests' rootedness in biological and genetic processes (e.g., heritability; Section 4);”
From What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? (2005) · cites this paper as Rushton & Jensen, 2005
Our findings are inconsistent with the hypothesis that racial disparities may be due to differences in cognitive ability.
“Our findings are also inconsistent with the hypothesis discussed in some prior work (e.g., Rushton and Jensen 2005) that racial disparities may be due to differences in cognitive ability, as there is no biological reason that racial differences in cognitive ability would vary by gender.”
From Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective* (2020) · cites this paper as Rushton and Jensen 2005
The prior literature suggests no ex ante biological reason that racial differences in cognitive ability would vary by gender.
“First, the prior literature suggests no ex ante biological reason that racial differences in cognitive ability would vary by gender (Rushton and Jensen 2005).”
From Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective* (2020) · cites this paper as Rushton and Jensen 2005
Cites
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Steele, C. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613 · Cited by 6,770 · see citing works
EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
Coleman, J. S. (1968) · Equity & Excellence in Education · doi:10.1080/0020486680060504 · Cited by 5,326 · see citing works
Equality of Educational Opportunity.
Havighurst, R., Coleman, J., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J. C., Mood, A., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. (1967) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2283696 · Cited by 4,655 · see citing works
Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes
Lakatos, I. (1970) · Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139171434.009 · Cited by 4,649 · see citing works
XV.—The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance.
Fisher, R. A. (1919) · Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh · doi:10.1017/s0080456800012163 · Cited by 4,387 · see citing works
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.124.2.262 · Cited by 4,180 · see citing works
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Cooper, T. (1976) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/141.8.521 · Cited by 3,994 · see citing works
Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes
Lakatos, I. (1976) · Can Theories be Refuted? · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1863-0_14 · Cited by 3,915 · see citing works
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2458 · Cited by 3,746 · see citing works
The History and Geography of Human Genes
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Menozzi, P., & Piazza, A. (2018) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv301gjp · Cited by 3,175 · see citing works
The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers
Lakatos, I. (1978) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511621123 · Cited by 3,045 · see citing works
Lehman, H. (1972) · Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/288419 · Cited by 3,006 · see citing works
Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns.
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J., et al. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 · Cited by 2,913 · see citing works
How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907 · see citing works
Self-citationPlatt, J. R. (1964) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.146.3642.347 · Cited by 2,907 · see citing works
Equality of Educational Opportunity.
Sewell, W. H., Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J. C., Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (1967) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2091094 · Cited by 2,753 · see citing works
The two disciplines of scientific psychology.
Cronbach, L. J. (1957) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0043943 · Cited by 2,545 · see citing works
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. D., & Draper, P. (1991) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01558.x · Cited by 2,532 · see citing works
How people make their own environments: a theory of genotype greater than environment effects.
Scarr, S., & Mccartney, K. (1983) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1983.tb03884.x · Cited by 2,385 · see citing works
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935 · see citing works
Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure.
Flynn, J. R. (1987) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.171 · Cited by 1,918 · see citing works
Wilson, E. O. (1978) · Cited by 1,867 · see citing works
Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development
Galton, F. (1883) · MacMillan Co eBooks · doi:10.1037/14178-000 · Cited by 1,851 · see citing works
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., & Draper, P. (1991) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131166 · Cited by 1,780 · see citing works
The Black-White Test Score Gap
Jencks, C., & Phillips, M. (2011) · Rowman & Littlefield Publishers eBooks · doi:10.5771/9780815746119 · Cited by 1,718 · see citing works
Genotype-environment interaction and correlation in the analysis of human behavior.
Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., & Loehlin, J. C. (1977) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.84.2.309 · Cited by 1,685 · see citing works
History and Geography of Human Genes
Piazza, A. (1994) · Advances in forensic haemogenetics · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-78782-9_1 · Cited by 1,639 · see citing works
The Raven's Progressive Matrices: Change and Stability over Culture and Time
Raven, J. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0735 · Cited by 1,560 · see citing works
The black-white test score gap
(1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.36-5211 · Cited by 1,497 · see citing works
Myrdal, G. (1962) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-26403-2_5 · Cited by 1,474 · see citing works
Worldwide Variation in Human Growth
Eveleth, P. B., & Tanner, J. M. (1991) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511629105 · Cited by 1,446 · see citing works
Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90014-3 · Cited by 1,408 · see citing works
Inquiries into human faculty and its development.
Galton, F. (1919) · Dent eBooks · doi:10.1037/10913-000 · Cited by 1,404 · see citing works
Murray, C. A., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1994) · Cited by 1,383 · see citing works
Why are children in the same family so different from one another?
Plomin, R. J., & Daniels, D. (1987) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00055941 · Cited by 1,350 · see citing works
The history and geography of human genes
Cann, R. L. (1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-0316 · Cited by 1,328 · see citing works
The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978.
Flynn, J. R. (1984) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.95.1.29 · Cited by 1,206 · see citing works
Genes, evolution, and personality
Bouchard, T. J., & Loehlin, J. C. (2001) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1023/a:1012294324713 · Cited by 1,085 · see citing works
Genetic influences on brain structure
Thompson, P. M., Cannon, T. D., Narr, K. L., van Erp, T. G. M., Poutanen, V.-P., HUTTUNEN, M. O., Lönnqvist, J. K., Standertskjöld-Nordenstam, C.-G., Kaprio, J. A., Khaledy, M., et al. (2001) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn758 · Cited by 1,033 · see citing works
The Science and Politics of IQ
Fulker, D., & Kamin, L. J. (1975) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421782 · Cited by 1,010 · see citing works
Behavioral Development and Construct Validity: The Principle of Aggregation
Rushton, J. P., Brainerd, C. J., & Pressley, M. (1983) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.94.1.18 · Cited by 940 · see citing works
Self-citationDoes Head Start Make a Difference?
Currie, J., & Thomas, D. (1993) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w4406 · Cited by 927 · see citing works
Advances in Psychology Research
Columbus, F. H., Shohov, S. P., & Columbus, A. M. (2001) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 911 · see citing works
The Abilities of Man their Nature and Measurement
(1927) · Nature · doi:10.1038/120181a0 · Cited by 892 · see citing works
Worldwide Variation in Human Growth
Buckler, J. (1991) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/adc.66.7.910-a · Cited by 819 · see citing works
Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease
Risch, N., Burchard, E., Ziv, E., & Tang, H. (2002) · Genome Biology · doi:10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007 · Cited by 793 · see citing works
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (2000) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.38-0374 · Cited by 787 · see citing works
Estimating African American Admixture Proportions by Use of Population-Specific Alleles
Parra, E. J., Marcini, A., Akey, J., Martinson, J., Batzer, M. A., Cooper, R., Forrester, T., Allison, D. B., Deka, R., Ferrell, R. E., et al. (1998) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1086/302148 · Cited by 771 · cited 7× · see citing works
“…70 for Black Americans in certain areas of the Deep South of the United States where the degree of White admixture is significantly below the general average (Chakraborty et al., 1992; Parra et al., 1998) are also consistent with the hereditarian interpretation of the effects of hybridization.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe dynamic assessment of retarded performers
Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., & Hoffman, M. B. (1981) · International Journal of Rehabilitation Research · doi:10.1097/00004356-198109000-00035 · Cited by 753 · see citing works
Sternberg, R. J. (2000) · Cited by 697 · see citing works
Jensen, A. R. (1996) · Nature · doi:10.1038/381729b0 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
Self-citationHeritability estimates versus large environmental effects: The IQ paradox resolved.
Dickens, W. T., & Flynn, J. R. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.2.346 · Cited by 663 · see citing works
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Balfour, J. H. (1870) · Nature · doi:10.1038/001534a0 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
The biology of twinning in man
Bulmer, M. G. (1970) · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Searching for justice: The discovery of IQ gains over time.
Flynn, J. R. (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.1.5 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
Rose, S., & Lewontin, R. C. (1984) · Cited by 490 · see citing works
Plomin, R. J., & McClearn, G. E. (1993) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10131-000 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
(2002) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.39-6738 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Darwin's athletes: how sport has damaged black America and preserved the myth of race
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-0609 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
Race, evolution and behavior: a life history perspective
Brand, C. (1995) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00064-d · Cited by 461 · see citing works
The anatomy of racial inequality
(2002) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-1238 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Educability and Group Differences
Jensen, A. R. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203807415 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
Self-citationTemne and Eskimo Perceptual Skills
Berry, J. W. (1966) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207596608247156 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: a case study in Kenya
Sternberg, R. (2001) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(01)00065-4 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
The Anatomy of Racial Inequality
Loury, G. C. (2003) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv1bzfpsb · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Scarr‐Salapatek, S. (1971) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.174.4016.1285 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Looking down on human intelligence.
Deary, I. J., & Stough, C. K. K. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.52.10.1148 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
The association between brain volume and intelligence is of genetic origin
Posthuma, D., De Geus, E. J. C., Baaré, W. F. C., Pol, H. E. H., Kahn, R. S., & Boomsma, D. I. (2002) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn0202-83 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Genetic variability of human brain size and cortical gyral patterns
Bartley, A. J. (1997) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/120.2.257 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
IQ test performance of Black children adopted by White families.
Scarr, S., & Weinberg, R. A. (1976) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.31.10.726 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Intelligence, Heredity and Environment
(1996) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174282 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Intelligence, heredity and environment
Vernon, P. E. (1979) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines [and Comments and Reply]
Beals, K. L., Smith, C. L., Dodd, S. M., Angel, J. L., Armstrong, E., Blumenberg, B., Girgis, F. G., Turkel, S., Gibson, K. R., Henneberg, M., et al. (1984) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/203138 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
ROTH, P. L., BEVIER, C. A., BOBKO, P., SWITZER, F. S., & TYLER, P. (2001) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2001.tb00094.x · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Evolutionary relationships of human populations on a global scale.
Nei, M., & Roychoudhury, A. K. (1993) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040059 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
How heritability misleads about race
Block, N. J. (1995) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(95)00678-r · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Race Differences in Intelligence
Bootzin, R. R., Loehlin, J. C., Lindzey, G. E., & Spuhler, J. N. (1976) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421415 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
The Dynamic Assessment of Retarded Performers
Klassen, D., Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., & Hoffman, M. B. (1981) · Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l éducation · doi:10.2307/1494664 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Behavioral genetics of cognitive ability: A life-span perspective.
McGue, M., Bouchard, T. J., Iacono, W. G., & Lykken, D. T. (1993) · Nature, nurture & psychology. · doi:10.1037/10131-003 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Preschool IQ: Prenatal and Early Developmental Correlates
Cook, T. D., Broman, S. H., Nichols, P. L., & Kennedy, W. A. (1976) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421421 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Lynn, R., & Vanhanen, T. (2002) · Praeger eBooks · doi:10.5040/9798400672408 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Looking Down on Human Intelligence
Deary, I. (2000) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198524175.001.0001 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
The testing of negro intelligence
Shuey, A. M. (1958) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 292 · see citing works
No more than skin deep: Ethnic and racial similarity in developmental process.
Rowe, D., Vazsonyi, A. T., & Flannery, D. J. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.3.396 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Ability Testing: Uses, Consequences, and Controversies
Wigdor, A. K. (1982) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.1982.tb00659.x · Cited by 280 · see citing works
IQ in Japan and the United States shows a growing disparity
Lynn, R. (1982) · Nature · doi:10.1038/297222a0 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Intelligence. Heredity and environment
Eysenck, H. J. (1980) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(80)90072-0 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Malnutrition and Environmental Enrichment by Early Adoption
Winick, M., Meyer, K. K., & Harris, R. C. (1975) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1198103 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
The scientific study of general intelligence : tribute to Arthur R. Jensen
Jensen, A. R., & Nyborg, H. (2003) · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Self-citationEducability and Group Differences
Thoday, J. M. (1973) · Nature · doi:10.1038/245418a0 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Caucasian genes in American blacks: new data.
Chakraborty, R., Kamboh, M. I., Nwankwo, M. U., & Ferrell, R. E. (1992) · PubMed · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Cross-Cultural Neuropsychological Assessment: Theory and Practice
Nell, V. (1999) · doi:10.4324/9781410603562 · Cited by 227
Survey of expert opinion on intelligence and aptitude testing.
Snyderman, M., & Rothman, S. (1987) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.42.2.137 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Analysis of brain weight. I. Adult brain weight in relation to sex, race, and age.
Kc, H., Roessmann, U., Straumfjord, J. V., & Monroe, G. (1980) · PubMed · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Cross-Cultural Neuropsychological Assessment: Theory and Practice
Miotto, E. C. (2001) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027//0269-8803.15.2.128 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Volumetric MRI measurements in bipolars compared with schizophrenics and healthy controls
Harvey, I., Persaud, R., Ron, M. A., Baker, G., & Murray, R. M. (1994) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700027847 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Intelligence, race, and genetics.
Sternberg, R., Grigorenko, E., Kidd, K., & Stemler, S. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.1.46 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Race, social class and ability patterns on the WISC-R
Jensen, A. R., & Reynolds, C. R. (1982) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(82)90007-1 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Self-citationBrain size and cognitive ability: Correlations with age, sex, social class, and race
Rushton, J. P., & Ankney, C. D. (1996) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210739 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Self-citationPreschool IQ: Prenatal and Early Developmental Correlates
Work, H. H. (1976) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.133.11.1358 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Bayley, N. (1965) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1965.tb05304.x · Cited by 189 · see citing works
The testing of Negro intelligence
Maxwell, J. (1967) · PubMed Central · Cited by 188 · see citing works
A Twin MRI Study of Size Variations in the Human Brain
Pennington, B. F., Filipek, P. A., Lefly, D. L., Chhabildas, N. A., Kennedy, D. N., Simon, J. H., Filley, C. M., Galaburda, A. M., & DeFries, J. C. (2000) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892900561850 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Sociopolitical diversity in psychology: The case for pluralism.
Redding, R. E. (2001) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.205 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Ability factors and environmental influences.
Vernon, P. E. (1965) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0021472 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
The IQ Controversy, the Media and Public Policy.
Lang, G. E., Snyderman, M., & Rothman, S. (1989) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2073374 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
The role of nutrition in secular increases in intelligence
Lynn, R. (1990) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(90)90241-i · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Bayley, N. (1965) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1126464 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Intelligence, genes, and success: scientists respond to the bell curve
Devlin, B. (1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-4193 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
The Abilities and Achievements of Orientals in North America
(1982) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2013-0-11648-0 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Race Differences in Intelligence.
Bear, J. C., Loehlin, J. C., Banton, M., Harwood, J., & Montagu, A. (1976) · Man · doi:10.2307/2800419 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
How people make their own environments: Implications for parents and policy makers.
Scarr, S. W. (1996) · Psychology Public Policy and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.2.2.204 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Price, J. S. (1974) · Journal of Biosocial Science · doi:10.1017/s0021932000009780 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Intelligence and brain myelination: A hypothesis
Miller, E. M. (1994) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90049-3 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Educability and group differences
Jensen, A. R. (1974) · Nature · doi:10.1038/250713a0 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman Variation: The Biopsychology of Age, Race, and Sex
Tyler, L. E., Osborne, R. T., Noble, C. E., et al. (1979) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421498 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
How People Make Their Own Environments: A Theory of Genotype --> Environment Effects
Scarr, S. W., & McCartney, K. (1983) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129703 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Perspectives on Bias in Mental Testing
Reynolds, C. R., & Brown, R. T. (2012) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Human Abilities in Cultural Context
(1988) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511574603 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Racial and Ethnic Differences in Disease.
Cockerham, W. C., & Polednak, A. P. (1990) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2072379 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Some racial peculiarities of the Negro brain
Bean, R. B. (1906) · American Journal of Anatomy · doi:10.1002/aja.1000050402 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Cumulative deficit in IQ of Blacks in the rural South.
Jensen, A. R. (1977) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.13.3.184 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Minnesota transracial adoption study: A follow-up of IQ test performance at adolescence
Weinberg, R. A., Scarr, S., & Waldman, I. D. (1992) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90028-p · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Progress and Degeneration in the ‘IQ Debate’ (I)
Urbach, P. (1974) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/25.2.99 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Human Variation: The Biopsychology of Age, Race, and Sex.
TenHouten, W. D., Osbourne, R. T., Noble, C. E., & Weyl, N. (1979) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2065237 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Rushton, J. P. (1992) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90017-l · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Self-citationEveryday life as an intelligence test: Effects of intelligence and intelligence context
Gordon, R. A. (1997) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90017-9 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
The Neuropsychology and Psychophysiology of Human Intelligence
Vernon, P. A., Wickett, J. C., Bazana, P. G., & Stelmack, R. M. (2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807947.013 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Sociopolitical diversity in psychology: The case for pluralism.
Redding, R. E. (2001) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.205 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Progress and Degeneration in the ‘IQ Debate’ (II)
Urbach, P. (1974) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/25.3.235 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Flynn, J. R. (1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Investigating Spearman's Hypothesis by Means of Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Dolan, C. V. (2000) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3501_2 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Race differences in intelligence: A global perspective
Lynn, R. (1991) · Mankind Quarterly · doi:10.46469/mq.1991.31.3.5 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Degler, C. N. (1993) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195077070.001.0001 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
The suitability of Raven's standard progressive matrices for various groups in South Africa
Owen, K. (1992) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(92)90037-p · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Differential Use of Reproductive Strategies by Human Groups?
Mealey, L. (1990) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00247.x · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Intellectual and adaptive performance of Asian children in adoptive American settings.
Clark, E. A., & Hanisee, J. (1982) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.4.595 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Brain size does not predict general cognitive ability within families
Schoenemann, P. T., Budinger, T. F., Sarich, V. M., & Wang, W. S.-Y. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4932 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Breslau, N. (2001) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/154.8.711 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
The IQ controversy, the media, and public policy
(1989) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.26-3531 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Comparison of black-white differences on the WISC-R and the K-ABC: Spearman's hypothesis
Naglieri, J. A., & Jensen, A. R. (1987) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(87)90024-9 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationBernasconi, R., Nott, J. C., & Gliddon, G. R. (1854) · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Performance on Raven's Matrices by African and White University Students in South Africa
Rushton, J. P., & Skuy, M. (2000) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(00)00035-0 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationObservations on the size of the brain in various races and families of man /
Morton, S. G. (1849) · doi:10.5962/bhl.title.118071 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Race and intelligence: separating science from myth
(2002) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.39-4656 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Scarr, S., Pakstis, A. J., Katz, S. H., & Barker, W. B. (1977) · Human Genetics · doi:10.1007/bf00273154 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Rushton, J. P. (1999) · Personality and Individual Differences · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationGroup Differences in Intelligence
Loehlin, J. C. (2000) · Handbook of Intelligence · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807947.010 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Race and sex differences in head size and IQ
Jensen, A. R., & Johnson, F. W. (1994) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(94)90032-9 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationRushton, J. P., Skuy, M., & Fridjhon, P. (2003) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00140-x · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationOsborne, R. T. (1980) · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Mall, F. P. (1909) · American Journal of Anatomy · doi:10.1002/aja.1000090102 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Cumulative deficit: A testable hypothesis?
Jensen, A. R. (1974) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0037246 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationRowe, D., & Rodgers, J. L. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.4.759 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Getting here: the story of human evolution
(1993) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.31-2181 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Nagoshi, C. T., Johnson, R. C., DeFries, J. C., et al. (1984) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(84)90125-9 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Moore, E. G. (1986) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.317 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
CORRELATION OF SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST SCORE WITH COLLEGE GRADES FOR NEGROES VERSUS WHITES1
Stanley, J. C., & Porter, A. C. (1967) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1967.tb00589.x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Spearman's Hypothesis tested with chronometric information-processing tasks
Jensen, A. R. (1993) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(93)90039-8 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationThe IQ paradox: Resolved? Still an open question.
Loehlin, J. C. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.4.754 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Skuy, M., Gewer, A., Osrin, Y., Khunou, D., Fridjhon, P., & Rushton, J. P. (2002) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(01)00085-x · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationThe intelligence of the Japanese.
Lynn, R. (1977) · Bulletin of the British Psychological Society · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Brain size and cerebral glucose metabolic rate in nonspecific mental retardation and down syndrome
Haier, R. J., Chueh, D., Touchette, P. E., Lott, I. T., Buchsbaum, M. S., MacMillan, D. L., Sandman, C. A., LaCasse, L., & Sosa, E. (1995) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(95)90032-2 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Skuy, M., Schutte, E. M., Fridjhon, P., & O’Carroll, S. (2001) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00123-9 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Cranial capacity and linear dimensions, in White and Negro
Todd, T. W., & Russell, M. (1923) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330060202 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Normal and Abnormal Development of Brain and Behaviour
Stoelinga, G. B. A., & ten Bosch, J. J. V. D. W. (1971) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-2921-6 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The puzzle of nongenetic variance
Jensen, A. R. (1996) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174282.003 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationFactors Influencing the Relationship Between Brain Size and Intelligence
Gignac, G. E., Vernon, P. A., & Wickett, J. C. (2003) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008043793-4/50042-8 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The IQ paradox is still resolved: Reply to Loehlin (2002) and Rowe and Rodgers (2002).
Dickens, W. T., & Flynn, J. R. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.4.764 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Spearman's Hypothesis and Test Score Differences Between Whites, Indians, and Blacks in South Africa
Lynn, R., & Owen, K. (1994) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1994.9711170 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The intelligence of Korean children adopted in Belgium
Frydman, M., & Lynn, R. (1989) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(89)90246-8 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Tizard, B. (1974) · Nature · doi:10.1038/247316a0 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Theory and Research on `Race' as a Natural Kind Variable in Psychology
Tate, C., & Audette, D. (2001) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354301114005 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Neisser, U. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.52.1.79 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Nyborg, H., & Jensen, A. R. (2000) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00122-1 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationRushton, J., & Jensen, A. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00192-7 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationEthnic and Racial Similarity in Developmental Process: A Study of Academic Achievement
Rowe, D., Vazsonyi, A. T., & Flannery, D. J. (1995) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1995.tb00301.x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Rushton, J. P., Skuy, M., & Fridjhon, P. (2002) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00093-4 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychometric g related to differences in head size
Jensen, A. R. (1994) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90132-5 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationSowell, T. (1992) · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The testing of negro intelligence
Jensen, A. R. (1983) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(83)90041-7 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationJensen, A. R., & Whang, P. A. (1994) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.1994.1001 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationMyopia and intelligence:a pleiotropic relationship?
Cohn, S. J., Cohn, C. M. G., & Jensen, A. R. (1988) · Human Genetics · doi:10.1007/bf00451456 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationRacial and ethnic differences in intelligence in the United States on the Differential Ability Scale
Lynn, R. (1996) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00158-1 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Broman, S. H., Nichols, P. L., Shaughnessy, P., et al. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203056868 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Practice and Coaching on IQ Tests: Quite a Lot of g
Nijenhuis, J. T., Voskuijl, O. F., & Schijve, N. B. (2001) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/1468-2389.00182 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Intelligence, race, and genetics: conversations with Arthur R. Jensen
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-4920 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Spearman's Hypothesis: Methodology and Evidence
Jensen, A. (1992) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr2702_5 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationSOME DIFFERENTIAL ABILITIES OF NORTHERN CANADIAN NATIVE YOUTH1
MacArthur, R. S. (1968) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207596808246642 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Race, evolution, and behavior: a life history perspective
(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.32-5161 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Sex and race differences in cranial capacity from international labour office data
Rushton, J. P. (1994) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(94)90002-7 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationTest performance of blacks in Southern Africa
Kendall, I. M., Verster, M. A., & Mollendorf, J. W. V. (1988) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511574603.013 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Rowe, D. (2002) · Population and Environment · doi:10.1023/a:1016313718644 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The Brain of the Kenya Native.
Vint, F. W. (1934) · PubMed · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Cranial size and IQ in Asian Americans from birth to age seven
Rushton, J. P. (1997) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90004-0 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Effect of School Attendance on Intellectual Development in Northern Nigeria
Fahrmeier, E. D. (1975) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1975.tb03308.x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Near identity of cognitive structure in sex and ethnic groups
Carretta, T. R., & Ree, M. J. (1995) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00031-z · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites
Rushton, J. P. (1989) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(89)90005-6 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationEstimating the determinants of cognitive achievement in low-income countries
Glewwe, P., & Jacoby, H. G. (1992) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/0-8213-2271-0 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Dolan, C. V., & Hamaker, E. L. (2001) · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 29
- Bressler, 1968, Sociobiology, biology and ideology., 178
- Chakraborty, 1992, Caucasian genes in American Blacks., American Journal of Human Genetics, 50, 145
- Chisholm, 1999, Death, hope, and sex: Steps to an evolutionary ecology of mind and morality., 10.1017/CBO9780511605932 · DOI
- Crow, 2002, Unequal by nature: A geneticist's perspective on human differences., Daedalus, 131, 81
- Darwin, 1859, The origin of species.
- Darwin, 1871, The descent of man.
- Eyferth, 1961, Leistungen verscheidener Gruppen von Besatzungskindern in Ham-burg-Wechsler Intelligenztest fur Kinder (HAWIK), Archiv fur die Gesamte Psychologie, 113, 222
- Eyferth, 1960, Farbige kinder in Deutschland
- Eysenck, 1971, The IQ argument.
- 10.2307/1128866 · DOI
- Gallon, 1869, Hereditary genius.
- Gollfredson, 2000, Pretending lhal intelligence doesn'l mailer., Cerebrum, 2, 75
- Ho, 1980, Analysis of brain weight: I and II., Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, 104, 635
- 10.1037/0012-1649.13.3.184 · DOI
- 10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.121 · DOI
- Masters, 1997, Brain biochemistry and social status: The neurotoxity hypothesis., 141
- Miele, 1995, For whom the bell curve tolls: An interview with [the author of The Bell Curve] Charles Murray, on IQ, race, class, Gould, Gardner, and the Clintons., Skeptic, 3, 34
- 10.1037/0003-066X.52.1.79 · DOI
- Nisbett, 1998, Race, genetics, and IQ., 86
- Ogbu, 2002, Cultural amplifiers of intelligence: IQ and minority status in cross-cultural perspective., 241
- Plomin, 2001, Behavioral genetics
- Post, 1982, Populational differences in visual acuity: A review, with speculative notes on selection relaxation., Social Biology, 29, 319
- Raven, 1990, Manual for Raven's Progressive Matrices and Vocabulary Scales-Research supplement: No. 3. American and international norms
- 10.1037/0003-066X.49.3.215 · DOI
- Simmons, 1942, Cranial capacities by both plastic and water techniques with cranial linear measurements of the Reserve Collection: White and Negro., Human Biology, 14, 473
- Skuy, 1987, Effectiveness of the Learning Potential Assessment Device with Indian and Colored adolescents in South Africa., International Journal of Special Education, 12, 131
- Stringer, 1996, African exodus.
- Watson, 1924, Behaviorism.
- Zindi, 1994, Differences in performance., The Psychologist, 7, 549
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments
Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., & Turkheimer, E. (2012) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0026699 · Cited by 968 · see citing works
Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective*
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2020) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjz042 · Cited by 842 · see citing works
One Century of Global IQ Gains: A Formal Meta-Analysis of the Flynn Effect (1909–2013)
Pietschnig, J., & Voracek, M. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615577701 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Gender differences in processing speed: A review of recent research
Roivainen, E. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.11.021 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence From Standardization Samples
Dickens, W. T., & Flynn, J. R. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x · Cited by 119 · see citing works
A systematic literature review of the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.05.002 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Testing for Racial Differences in the Mental Ability of Young Children
Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2013) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.103.2.981 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., Carlson, J. S., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.12.001 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Considerations Relating to the Study of Group Differences in Intelligence
Hunt, E., & Carlson, J. (2007) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00037.x · Cited by 64 · see citing works
What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true?
Gottfredson, L. S. (2005) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.311 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy.
Suzuki, L., & Aronson, J. (2005) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.320 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2010) · The Open Psychology Journal · doi:10.2174/1874350101003010009 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationHeredity, environment, and race differences in IQ: A commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005).
Nisbett, R. E. (2005) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.302 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Racial equality in intelligence: Predictions from a theory of intelligence as processing
Fagan, J. F., & Holland, C. R. (2007) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.009 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Wanted: More race realism, less moralistic fallacy.
Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2005) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.328 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Totality of Available Evidence Shows the Race IQ Gap Still Remains
Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01803.x · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationTesting Spearman's hypotheses using a bi-factor model with WAIS-IV/WMS-IV standardization data
Frisby, C. L., & Beaujean, A. A. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.04.007 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
There are no public-policy implications: A reply to Rushton and Jensen (2005).
Sternberg, R. J. (2005) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.295 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Murray, C. (2007) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.02.001 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Global Ancestry and Cognitive Ability
Lasker, J., Pesta, B. J., Fuerst, J. G. R., & Kirkegaard, E. O. W. (2019) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych1010034 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“They predicted that “for those Black individuals who possess more White genes, their physical, behavioral, and other characteristics will approach those of Whites” ([9], p.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBiogeographic Ancestry, Cognitive Ability and Socioeconomic Outcomes
Kirkegaard, E., Woodley of Menie, M., Williams, R., Fuerst, J., & Meisenberg, G. (2019) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych1010001 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Pesta, B. J., Kirkegaard, E. O. W., te Nijenhuis, J., Lasker, J., & Fuerst, J. G. R. (2020) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101408 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Bird, K. A. (2021) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24216 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
A comparative study of general intelligence in Spanish and Moroccan samples
Díaz, A., Sellami, K., Infanzón, E., Lanzón, T., & Lynn, R. (2012) · The Spanish journal of psychology · doi:10.5209/rev_sjop.2012.v15.n2.38863 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Schraiber, J. G., & Edge, M. D. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2319496121 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Wicherts, J. M. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2016.11.002 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Murray, C. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.004 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Warne, R. T. (2021) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.134.4.0479 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Fuerst, J., Lynn, R., & Kirkegaard, E. (2019) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych1010004 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“These results have been cited as evidence in favor of a hereditarian hypothesis for racial differences in intelligence [3].”
Result
- Authors
- Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R.
- Affiliations
- Western University (CA)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Venue
- Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
- Published
- 2005-06
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 235-294
- ISSN
- 1076-8971 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1528
- OpenAlex
- W2110295154
- Cited by
- 457
- References
- 255
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 33.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2006-07-10)
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychology Public Policy and Law (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Race, Genetics, and Society
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Keywords
- heritability of intelligence, transracial adoption, racial mixing, brain size and intelligence, general intelligence, human origins, nature versus nurture, discrimination model, distributional models, public policy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
