Navigation around London by a taxi driver with bilateral hippocampal lesions
Abstract
The time-scale of hippocampal involvement in supporting episodic memory remains a keenly debated topic, with disagreement over whether its role is temporary or permanent. Recently, there has been interest in how navigation by hippocampally-compromised patients in environments learned long ago speaks to this issue. However, identifying patients with damage that is primarily hippocampal, control subjects matched for navigation experience, and testing their in situ navigation, present substantial problems. We met these challenges by using a highly accurate and interactive virtual reality simulation of central London (UK) to assess the navigation ability of a licensed London taxi driver who had sustained bilateral hippocampal damage. In this test, patient TT and matched control taxi drivers drove a virtual London taxi along the streets they had first learned 40 years before. We found that the hippocampus is not required for general orientation in the city either in first person or survey perspectives, detailed topographical knowledge of landmarks and their spatial relationships, or even for active navigation along some routes. However, in his navigation TT was very reliant on main artery or 'A' roads, and became lost when navigation depended instead on non-A roads. We conclude that the hippocampus in humans is necessary for facilitating navigation in places learned long ago, particularly where complex large-scale spaces are concerned, and successful navigation requires access to detailed spatial representations.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Neuropsychological evidence indicates that complex spatial memories acquired years in the past can become independent of the hippocampus.
“Neuropsychological evidence indicates that complex spatial memories acquired years in the past can become independent of the hippocampus (Teng and Squire 1999; Rosenbaum et al. 2000, 2005; Maguire et al. 2006; Herdman et al. 2015).”
From Hippocampal and Retrosplenial Goal Distance Coding After Long-term Consolidation of a Real-World Environment (2019) · cites this paper as Maguire et al. 2006
Several amnesic case studies have displayed impressive retention of spatial memories for environments learned before the onset of extensive hippocampal damage.
“Several amnesic case studies have displayed impressive retention of spatial memories for environments learned before the onset of extensive hippocampal damage (Teng and Squire 1999; Rosenbaum et al. 2000; Maguire et al. 2006; Herdman et al. 2015).”
From Hippocampal and Retrosplenial Goal Distance Coding After Long-term Consolidation of a Real-World Environment (2019) · cites this paper as Maguire et al. 2006
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
(1978) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 8,010 · see citing works
The hippocampus as a spatial map. Preliminary evidence from unit activity in the freely-moving rat
O'Keefe, J., & Dostrovsky, J. (1971) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(71)90358-1 · Cited by 6,151 · see citing works
The hippocampus as a cognitive map
Passingham, R. E. (1979) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/0306-4522(79)90015-0 · Cited by 5,128 · see citing works
(2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.43-0626 · Cited by 4,726 · see citing works
The human hippocampus and spatial and episodic memory
Burgess, N., Maguire, E. A., & O'Keefe, J. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00830-9 · Cited by 2,401 · see citing works
Self-citationRetrograde amnesia and memory consolidation: a neurobiological perspective
Squire, L. R., & Alvarez, P. (1995) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/0959-4388(95)80023-9 · Cited by 1,412 · see citing works
Vincent, A. C., Buckley, C. J., Schott, J. M., Baker, I., Dewar, B., Detert, N., Clover, L. M., Parkinson, A., Bien, C. G., Omer, S., et al. (2004) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awh077 · Cited by 1,037 · see citing works
Crawford, J., & Garthwaite, P. H. (2002) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(01)00224-x · Cited by 979 · see citing works
Moscovitch, M., Rosenbaum, R. S., Gilboa, A., Addis, D. R., Westmacott, R., Grady, C., McAndrews, M. P., Levine, B., Black, S., Winocur, G., et al. (2005) · Journal of Anatomy · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00421.x · Cited by 893 · see citing works
The Well-Worn Route and the Path Less Traveled
Hartley, T., Maguire, E. A., Spiers, H. J., & Burgess, N. (2003) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00095-3 · Cited by 817 · see citing works
Self-citationIaria, G., Petrides, M., Dagher, A., Pike, G. B., & Bohbot, V. D. (2003) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.23-13-05945.2003 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
The cognitive neuroscience of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory
Moscovitch, M., Nadel, L., Winocur, G., Gilboa, A., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2006) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2006.03.013 · Cited by 660 · see citing works
Sites of Neocortical Reorganization Critical for Remote Spatial Memory
Maviel, T., Durkin, T., Menzaghi, F., & Bontempi, B. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1098180 · Cited by 659 · see citing works
Dissociating hippocampal subregions: A double dissociation between dentate gyrus and CA1
Gilbert, P. E., Kesner, R. P., & Lee, I. (2001) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.1077 · Cited by 641 · see citing works
The retrosplenial contribution to human navigation: a review of lesion and neuroimaging findings
Maguire, E. (2001) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00233 · Cited by 584 · see citing works
Self-citationThe case of K.C.: contributions of a memory-impaired person to memory theory
Rosenbaum, R. S., Köhler, S., Schacter, D. L., Moscovitch, M., Westmacott, R., Black, S. E., Gao, F., & Tulving, E. (2005) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.10.007 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Memory for places learned long ago is intact after hippocampal damage
Teng, E., & Squire, L. R. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/23276 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
Thoughts, behaviour, and brain dynamics during navigation in the real world
Spiers, H. J., & Maguire, E. A. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.01.037 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
Self-citationNavigation expertise and the human hippocampus: A structural brain imaging analysis
Maguire, E. A., Spiers, H. J., Good, C. D., Hartley, T., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Burgess, N. (2003) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.10087 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
Self-citationSpiers, H. J. (2001) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/124.12.2476 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Self-citationRemote spatial memory in an amnesic person with extensive bilateral hippocampal lesions
Rosenbaum, R. S., Priselac, S., Köhler, S., Black, S. E., Gao, F., Nadel, L., & Moscovitch, M. (2000) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/79867 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Maguire, E. A. (2001) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/124.6.1156 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Self-citationRosenbaum, R. S., Ziegler, M., Winocur, G., Grady, C. L., & Moscovitch, M. (2004) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.10218 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
The Human Hippocampus: Cognitive Maps or Relational Memory?
Kumaran, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2005) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1103-05.2005 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Self-citationLong-term retrograde amnesia...the crucial role of the hippocampus.
Cipolotti, L., Shallice, T., Chan, D., Fox, N., Scahill, R., Harrison, G., Stevens, J., & Rudge, P. (2001) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(00)00103-2 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Hippocampus and remote spatial memory in rats
Clark, R. E., Broadbent, N., & Squire, L. R. (2004) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20056 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Memory for Spatial Location: Role of the Hippocampus in Mediating Spatial Pattern Separation
Gilbert, P. E., Kesner, R. P., & DeCoteau, W. E. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-02-00804.1998 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Bayley, P. J., Hopkins, R. O., & Squire, L. R. (2003) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00156-9 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
The Neuroanatomy of Remote Memory
Bayley, P. J., Gold, J. J., Hopkins, R. O., & Squire, L. R. (2005) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.04.034 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Fogel, S., Rosenbaum, R. S., & Sekeres, M. (2005) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1401 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Martin, S. J., de Hoz, L., & Morris, R. (2004) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.07.007 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
The Skeleton In The Cognitive Map
Kuipers, B. J., Tecuci, D. G., & Stankiewicz, B. J. (2003) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916502238866 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Clark, R. E., Broadbent, N., & Squire, L. R. (2005) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20076 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Spatial Representations of Taxi Drivers
Chase, W. G. (1983) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-3724-9_43 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The hippocampus, consolidation and on-line memory
Knowlton, B. J., & Fanselow, M. S. (1998) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(98)80154-2 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Rosenbaum, R. S., Gao, F., Richards, B., Black, S. E., & Moscovitch, M. (2005) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929053279496 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Retrograde amnesia in rats with lesions to the hippocampus on a test of spatial memory
Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Caruana, D. A., & Binns, M. A. (2005) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.01.013 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Medial Temporal Lobe Function and Memory.
Squire, L. R., Clark, R. E., & Bayley, P. J. (2004) · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Lisa Cipolotti, A., & Maguire, E. A. (2003) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00032-0 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationFour Easy Memory Tests for Older Adults
Clegg, F., & Warrington, E. K. (1994) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658219408258943 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
La représentation de l'espace urbain : l'exemple du chauffeur de taxi
Pailhous, J., & Leplat, J. (1970) · Presses Universitaires de France eBooks · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The hippocampus and remote autobiographical memory
Cipolotti, L., & Moscovitch, M. (2005) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(05)70232-5 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The neuroanatomy of very remote memory
Squire, L. R., & Bayley, P. J. (2006) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(06)70335-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Crawford JR, Howell DC. Comparing and individual's test score against norms derived from small samples. Clin Neuropsychol 1998; 12: 482-6.
- Knowlton BJ, Fanselow MS. The hippocampus, consolidation and online memory. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1998; 8: 293-6.
- Spiers HJ, Maguire EA, Burgess N. Hippocampal amnesia. Neurocase 2001a; 7: 357-82.
- Squire LR, Clark RE, Knowlton BJ. Retrograde amnesia. Hippocampus 2001; 11: 50-5.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Are the Dorsal and Ventral Hippocampus Functionally Distinct Structures?
Fanselow, M. S., & Dong, H.-W. (2010) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.11.031 · Cited by 3,358 · see citing works
Patients with hippocampal amnesia cannot imagine new experiences
Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., Vann, S. D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0610561104 · Cited by 1,414 · see citing works
Self-citationWhat does the retrosplenial cortex do?
Vann, S. D., Aggleton, J. P., & Maguire, E. A. (2009) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2733 · Cited by 1,409 · see citing works
Self-citationDeconstructing episodic memory with construction
Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.001 · Cited by 1,229 · see citing works
Self-citationThe cognitive map in humans: spatial navigation and beyond
Epstein, R. A., Patai, E. Z., Julian, J. B., & Spiers, H. J. (2017) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.4656 · Cited by 921 · see citing works
Self-citationViewpoints: how the hippocampus contributes to memory, navigation and cognition
Lisman, J., Buzsáki, G., Eichenbaum, H., Nadel, L., Ranganath, C., & Redish, A. D. (2017) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.4661 · Cited by 851 · see citing works
Anterior hippocampus: the anatomy of perception, imagination and episodic memory
Zeidman, P., & Maguire, E. A. (2016) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2015.24 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Self-citationMemory Transformation and Systems Consolidation
Winocur, G., & Moscovitch, M. (2011) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617711000683 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
The construction system of the brain
Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0296 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of the hippocampus in flexible cognition and social behavior
Rubin, R. D., Watson, P. D., Duff, M. C., & Cohen, N. J. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00742 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., & Bontempi, B. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.04.016 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
The Role of Hippocampal Replay in Memory and Planning
Ólafsdóttir, H. F., Bush, D., & Barry, C. (2018) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.073 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
Event memory: A theory of memory for laboratory, autobiographical, and fictional events.
Rubin, D. C., & Umanath, S. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0037907 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Hippocampal ripples and memory consolidation
Girardeau, G., & Zugaro, M. (2011) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2011.02.005 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Howard, L. R., Javadi, A. H., Yu, Y., Mill, R. D., Morrison, L. C., Knight, R., Loftus, M. M., Staskute, L., & Spiers, H. J. (2014) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.05.001 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Self-citationStructuring knowledge with cognitive maps and cognitive graphs
Peer, M., Brunec, I. K., Newcombe, N. S., & Epstein, R. A. (2021) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2020.10.004 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
The Hippocampus and Imagining the Future: Where Do We Stand?
Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00173 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Robin, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2017) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.07.016 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Hardt, O., Einarsson, E. Ö., & Nader, K. (2010) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100455 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Role of the hippocampus in remembering the past and imagining the future
Squire, L. R., van der Horst, A. S., McDuff, S. G. R., Frascino, J. C., Hopkins, R. O., & Mauldin, K. N. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1014391107 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Weniger, G., Ruhleder, M., Lange, C., Wolf, S., & Irle, E. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.031 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Spatial goal coding in the hippocampal formation
Nyberg, N., Duvelle, É., Barry, C., & Spiers, H. J. (2022) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2021.12.012 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Self-citationAbstract Representations of Location and Facing Direction in the Human Brain
Vass, L. K., & Epstein, R. A. (2013) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3873-12.2013 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: A tale of two cities
Spiers, H. J., & Maguire, E. A. (2007) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.06.056 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom cognitive maps to spatial schemas
Farzanfar, D., Spiers, H. J., Moscovitch, M., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2023) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-022-00655-9 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationCiaramelli, E., Rosenbaum, R. S., Solcz, S., Levine, B., & Moscovitch, M. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0019181 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Patai, E. Z., Javadi, A.-H., Ozubko, J. D., O’Callaghan, A., Ji, S., Robin, J., Grady, C., Winocur, G., Rosenbaum, R. S., Moscovitch, M., et al. (2019) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhz044 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citationSolving the detour problem in navigation: a model of prefrontal and hippocampal interactions
Spiers, H. J., & Gilbert, S. J. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00125 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationHirshhorn, M., Grady, C., Rosenbaum, R. S., Winocur, G., & Moscovitch, M. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.08.008 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Rosenbaum, R. S., Winocur, G., Grady, C. L., Ziegler, M., & Moscovitch, M. (2007) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20354 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Rosenbaum, R. S., & Sekeres, M. (2010) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20721 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Dreaming with hippocampal damage
Spanò, G., Pizzamiglio, G., McCormick, C., Clark, I. A., De Felice, S., Miller, T. D., Edgin, J. O., Rosenthal, C. R., & Maguire, E. A. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.56211 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationHerdman, K. A., Calarco, N., Moscovitch, M., Hirshhorn, M., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2015) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.06.008 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Concrete behaviour and reappraisal deficits after a left frontal stroke: A case study
Salas, C. E., Gross, J. J., Rafal, R. D., Viñas-Guasch, N., & Turnbull, O. H. (2013) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2013.784709 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Staging Neurodegenerative Disorders: Structural, Regional, Biomarker, and Functional Progressions
Archer, T., Kostrzewa, R. M., Beninger, R. J., & Palomo, T. (2011) · Neurotoxicity Research · doi:10.1007/s12640-010-9190-2 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Stepping Into a Map: Initial Heading Direction Influences Spatial Memory Flexibility
Gagnon, S. A., Brunyé, T. T., Gardony, A., Noordzij, M. L., Mahoney, C. R., & Taylor, H. A. (2014) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12055 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Patterns of preserved and impaired spatial memory in a case of developmental amnesia
Rosenbaum, R. S., Cassidy, B. N., & Herdman, K. A. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00196 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Robin, J., Rivest, J., Rosenbaum, R. S., & Moscovitch, M. (2019) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2019.04.013 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Gaskin, S., Tardif, M., & Mumby, D. G. (2011) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2011.06.001 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Ziegler, M. G., Liu, Z.-X., Arsenault, J., Dang, C., Grady, C., Rosenbaum, R. S., & Moscovitch, M. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhad272 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Maguire, E. A., Nannery, R., & Spiers, H. J.
- Affiliations
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Maguire, E. A.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-09-29
- Volume
- 129
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 2894-2907
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2116524658
- Cited by
- 335
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 46.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (071173)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- hippocampus, spatial navigation, episodic memory, bilateral hippocampal lesions, taxi drivers, virtual reality navigation, landmark learning, spatial representation
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Amnesia, Automobile Driving, Hippocampus, Humans, Judgment, Learning, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Memory, Neuropsychological Tests, Orientation, Perceptual Disorders, Space Perception, Spatial Behavior, Limbic Encephalitis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
