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Cited by 121Spatial Cognition and NavigationMemory and Neural MechanismsUrban Design and Spatial Analysis

From cognitive maps to spatial schemas

Open access
Farzanfar, Delaram, Spiers, Hugo J., Moscovitch, Morris, Rosenbaum, R. Shayna·2023·Nature Reviews Neuroscience
DOI 10.1038/s41583-022-00655-9
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Abstract

A schema refers to a structured body of prior knowledge that captures common patterns across related experiences. Schemas have been studied separately in the realms of episodic memory and spatial navigation across different species and have been grounded in theories of memory consolidation, but there has been little attempt to integrate our understanding across domains, particularly in humans. We propose that experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas (for example, the expected layout of modern cities) that share properties with but are distinct from cognitive maps (for example, the memory of a modern city) and event schemas (such as expected events in a modern city) at both cognitive and neural levels. We describe earlier theoretical frameworks and empirical findings relevant to spatial schemas, along with more targeted investigations of spatial schemas in human and non-human animals. Consideration of architecture and urban analytics, including the influence of scale and regionalization, on different properties of spatial schemas may provide a powerful approach to advance our understanding of spatial schemas.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The review proposes that spatial schemas are superordinate, generalizable spatial representations formed by integrating spatial gists across multiple similar environments, distinct from environment-specific cognitive maps and event schemas. It synthesizes rodent, human lesion/neuroimaging, and urban-analytics evidence to outline cognitive and neural mechanisms, with HPC–neocortical interactions and extra-HPC hubs such as mPFC, RSC, ERC, and PPC implicated.

Key findings

  • Spatial schemas are proposed as extra-HPC, environment-independent representations that support navigation in novel environments sharing geometric/visuospatial properties; they are distinct from cognitive maps and spatial gists, which remain environment-specific and can be kept distinct via pattern separation.
  • Rodent studies: rats with HPC lesions more than 24 hours after paired-associate learning retained original and novel paired associates, but lesions before 24 hours disrupted acquisition; in the village maze, HPC-lesioned rats with extensive pre-lesion experience learned novel rewarded locations as quickly as controls, whereas inexperienced HPC-lesioned rats took much longer, and performance depended on stable room geometry rather than distal cues.
  • Human evidence: K.C., an individual with bilateral HPC damage, produced accurate sketch maps of his hometown’s overall layout and judged relative distances/directions between major landmarks, but was impaired for minor landmarks and perceptual details; an fMRI analogue showed retrieval activity shifting from HPC to vmPFC after 24 hours and to vlPFC by 90 days, with accelerated consolidation for congruent novel associates from days 91–105.
  • Sea Hero Quest data from about 3.9 million people worldwide found that those who grew up in grid-like cities were generally worse navigators than those from disorganized cities or outside cities, but had a slight advantage in grid-like virtual environments; street network entropy values cited include Prague 3.6 and Chicago 2.5.

Methods

  • Narrative review/conceptual synthesis; no new primary data were collected. It integrates prior theoretical frameworks and empirical findings from rodent spatial navigation, human lesion/amnesia, fMRI, virtual navigation, and urban analytics/space syntax.
  • Evidence discussed includes rodent paradigms (event arena, village maze, HexMaze), human cases (e.g., K.C.), neuroimaging studies, and large-scale virtual navigation data (Sea Hero Quest, ~3.9 million participants, 38 countries). Main analysis is qualitative integration, not meta-analysis.

Limitations

  • Stated: the concept of spatial schema is still emerging; schema operationalizations are heterogeneous (statistical rule learning, associative inference, paired-associate learning, prior knowledge retrieval), and specific experimental paradigms for spatial schemas are needed.
  • Stated: systematic measurement of quantitative differences in real-world spatial organization is a major challenge; future work must determine where and how detailed and schematic spatial representations coexist and whether new schemas can be acquired/updated after HPC lesions.
  • Evident: as a review, it does not directly test the proposed neurocognitive framework; many neural mechanisms and distinctions are proposed or extrapolated from event-schema and animal work, and some cited evidence is indirect.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/s41583-022-00655-9

Cites

201 of 201 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 280 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Similar parts of one environment or multiple environments are represented using generalizable spatial codes.

    “similar parts of one environment or multiple environments seem to be represented using generalizable spatial codes [14][15][16][17][18][19] , which refer to a set of abstract spatial relations that can be used flexibly to facilitate navigation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14][15][16][17][18][19]

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  • Premisecitation

    The HPC can store unique cognitive maps of different environments or of altered versions of the same environment.

    “The HPC can store unique cognitive maps of different environments or of altered versions of the same environment 2,[10][11][12][13] .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites 2,[10][11][12][13]

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  • Interpretationcitation

    Spatial schemas would be used to guide navigation by enhancing expectations in predictive coding.

    “In both cases, spatial schemas would be used to guide navigation by enhancing expectations in predictive coding [G] 28 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] de Lange, F. P., Heilbron, M. & Kok, P. How do expectations shape perception? Trends Cogn. Sci. 22, 764–779 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationnone given

    Experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas.

    “We propose that experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas (for example, the expected layout of modern cities) that share properties with, but are distinct from, cognitive maps (for example, the memory of a modern city) and event schemas (such as expected events in a modern city) at both cognitive and neural levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    In participants navigating novel virtual reality environments, segments that overlapped with familiar environments learned the day before produced proactive interference.

    “A more recent study similarly showed proactive interference in participants who were navigating novel virtual reality environments that contained segments that overlapped with familiar environments learned the day before.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] He, Q., Beveridge, E. H., Starnes, J., Goodroe, S. C. & Brown, T. I. Environmental overlap and individual encoding strategy modulate memory interference in spatial navigation. Cognition 207, 104508 (2021). source

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  • May combine two claims. 62
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 54

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In our recent research, the RSC was found to code distance to goals in well-known, real-world environments, but not in recently learned environments.

    “In our recent research, the RSC was found to code distance to goals in well-known, real-world environments, but not in recently learned environments 153 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [153] Patai, E. Z. et al. Hippocampal and retrosplenial goal distance coding after long-term consolidation of a real-world environment. Cereb. Cortex 29, 2748–2758 (2019). This fMRI study provides evidence that the retrosplenial cortex codes spatial information in familiar environments in line with extraction of spatial knowledge to cortical regions. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    There are two aspects to spatial schemas: a psychological aspect relating to using previously formed schemas as reference templates for behaviour, and a neural aspect relating to schema formation via HPC-neocortical interaction.

    “There are two aspects to spatial schemas: one that is psychological and relates to using previously formed schemas as reference templates for behaviour, and the other that is also neural and relates to schema formation via HPC-neocortical interaction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    A spatial gist is a summary of the general layout extracted from experience navigating in that same environment, stripped of its perceptual details.

    “Like a cognitive map, a spatial gist [G] is composed of key elements specific to a particular environment, but it may be viewed as a summary of the general layout extracted from experience navigating in that same environment, stripped of its perceptual details 20 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Robin, J. & Moscovitch, M. Details, gist and schema: hippocampal–neocortical interactions underlying recent and remote episodic and spatial memory. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 17, 114–123 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A spatial schema is a superordinate spatial representation that supports optimal decision-making in multiple environments that share common geometric and visuospatial properties.

    “we argue that a spatial schema is a superordinate spatial representation that supports optimal decision-making in multiple environments that share common geometric and visuospatial properties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    A spatial schema is separate from an event schema, reflecting learned recurring patterns of spatial relations among key elements of an environment, and facilitated through navigation in that environment.

    “Here we consider the possibility of a spatial schema as separate from an event schema [G], instead reflecting learned recurring patterns of spatial relations among key elements of an environment 14,18,28 , and facilitated through the act of navigating in that environment [29][30][31][32] .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [14] Baraduc, P., Duhamel, J. R. & Wirth, S. Schema cells in the macaque hippocampus. Science 363, 635–639 (2019). Recordings from hippocampal neurons in the macaque monkey during virtual navigation show the existence of cells that generalize parts of similar environments across environments. source

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    • cites [18] McKenzie, S. et al. Hippocampal representation of related and opposing memories develop within distinct, hierarchically organized neural schemas. Neuron 83, 202–215 (2014). source

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    • cites [28] de Lange, F. P., Heilbron, M. & Kok, P. How do expectations shape perception? Trends Cogn. Sci. 22, 764–779 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [29][30][31][32]

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Schemas may draw on multiple gists and are not specific to any particular environment or location.

    “In this way, schemas may draw on multiple gists and, thus, are not specific to any particular environment or location.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The integration of multiple gists could give rise to spatial schemas that are independent of a specific environment and the HPC.

    “The integration of multiple gists, in turn, could give rise to spatial schemas [G] that are independent of a specific environment and the HPC.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Spatial navigation is guided by an internal representation of spatial relations in a specific environment, referred to as a cognitive map.

    “Spatial navigation is thought to be guided by the internal representation of spatial relations in a specific environment, referred to as a cognitive map [G] 2,9 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] Epstein, R. A., Patai, E. Z., Julian, J. B. & Spiers, H. J. The cognitive map in humans: spatial navigation and beyond. Nat. Neurosci. 20, 1504–1513 (2017). source

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    • cites [9] O’Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map (Clarendon Press, 1978).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pattern separation keeps cognitive maps and gists distinct from one another, but they can work in concert with schemas to aid in navigation.

    “A process known as pattern separation [G] 65,66 keeps cognitive maps and gists distinct from one another, but they can work in concert with schemas to aid in navigation 38 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [65] Rolls, E. T. On pattern separation in the primate, including human, hippocampus. Trends Cogn. Sci. 25, 920–922 (2021). source

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    • cites [66] Yassa, M. A. & Stark, C. E. Pattern separation in the hippocampus. Trends Neurosci. 34, 515–525 (2011). source

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    • cites [38] Zheng, L., Gao, Z., McAvan, A. S., Isham, E. A. & Ekstrom, A. D. Partially overlapping spatial environments trigger reinstatement in hippocampus and schema representations in prefrontal cortex. Nat. Commun. 12, 6231 (2021). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A spatial schema might be reinstated when one encounters similar elements in a novel environment, or when one must assimilate previously encountered elements with novel elements when a portion of a familiar environment is substantially altered.

    “A spatial schema might be reinstated when one encounters similar elements in a novel environment, or when one must assimilate previously encountered elements with novel elements when a portion of a familiar environment is substantially altered.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Gists and the cognitive maps that relate to them are not folded into schemas; they need to remain distinct so that not all environments are viewed as alike.

    “Gists, and the cognitive maps that relate to them, however, are not folded into schemas. They need to remain distinct from one another so that not all environments are viewed as alike -as would be the case if one only relied on schemas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Spatial schemas share properties with, but are distinct from, cognitive maps and event schemas at both cognitive and neural levels.

    “We propose that experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas (for example, the expected layout of modern cities) that share properties with, but are distinct from, cognitive maps (for example, the memory of a modern city) and event schemas (such as expected events in a modern city) at both cognitive and neural levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A spatial schema is a generalizable spatial representation of the category of an environment, formed by integrating overlapping neural representations across similar environments.

    “As such, a spatial schema could be thought of as a generalizable spatial representation of the category of an environment, formed by integrating overlapping neural representations across similar environments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A schema might facilitate learning of a novel environment that resembles a familiar one.

    “A schema, by contrast, might facilitate learning of a novel environment that resembles a familiar one.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The difference between spatial gists and spatial schemas should be revealed at a neuroanatomical level.

    “The difference between spatial gists and spatial schemas should be revealed at a neuroanatomical level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Spatial gists may be mediated by the anterior HPC, although lesion evidence suggests they do not depend on it, at least in humans.

    “Spatial gists may be mediated by the anterior HPC (Fig. 1), although there is lesion evidence reviewed below to suggest that they do not depend on it, at least in humans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rats with HPC lesions but extensive experience with the village maze acquired associations as quickly as controls, whereas inexperienced HPC-lesioned rats took much longer.

    “Rats with HPC lesions but extensive experience with the village acquired those associations as quickly as controls did, whereas inexperienced HPC-lesioned rats took much longer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Fogel, S., Rosenbaum, R. S. & Sekeres, M. Preserved spatial memory after hippocampal lesions: effects of extensive experience in a complex environment. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 273–275 (2005). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    K.C. was impaired in remembering minor landmarks and perceptual details of familiar environments, despite largely intact visuoperceptual processing abilities and semantic knowledge of those same places.

    “K.C. was impaired, however, in remembering minor landmarks and perceptual details of familiar environments, despite having largely intact visuoperceptual processing abilities and semantic knowledge of those same places.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [27] Spiers, H. J. & Maguire, E. A. The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities. Neuroscience 149, 7–27 (2007). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [81] Herdman, K. A., Calarco, N., Moscovitch, M., Hirshhorn, M. & Rosenbaum, R. S. Impoverished descriptions of familiar routes in three cases of hippocampal/medial temporal lobe amnesia. Cortex 71, 248–263 (2015). This patient-lesion study provides converging evidence that the hippocampus is needed to support remote spatial memory for visuospatial details but not the gist of environments learned long ago. source

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    • cites [82] Rosenbaum, R. S., Cassidy, B. N. & Herdman, K. A. Patterns of preserved and impaired spatial memory in a case of developmental amnesia. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9, 196 (2015). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Representational similarity analyses indicate that representations of learned associations, particularly previously established in memory, are integrated in anterior HPC and posterior mPFC, but remain distinct in posterior HPC and anterior mPFC.

    “Representational similarity analyses [G] indicate that the representations of learned associations, particularly those that are previously established in memory, are integrated in anterior HPC and posterior mPFC, but remain distinct in the posterior HPC and anterior mPFC 49 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Schlichting, M. L., Mumford, J. A. & Preston, A. R. Learning-related representational changes reveal dissociable integration and separation signatures in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Nat. Commun. 6, 8151 (2015). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This was accompanied by a more rapid shift of activity from HPC to vlPFC, reflecting reduced forgetting and accelerated systems consolidation.

    “This was accompanied by a more rapid shift of activity from HPC to vlPFC, reflecting reduced forgetting and accelerated systems consolidation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    fMRI data showed an activity shift from HPC to vmPFC for retrieval of learned associates after 24 hours, and with overlearning by 90 days, retrieval responses shifted to vlPFC, representing semanticization.

    “functional MRI (fMRI) data showed an activity shift from HPC to ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) for retrieval of learned associates after 24 hours, but that with overlearning (by 90 days), retrieval responses shifted to ventrolateral PFC (vlPFC), representing a process of semanticization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72] Sommer, T. The emergence of knowledge and how it supports the memory for novel related information. Cereb. Cortex 27, 1906–1921 (2017).

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    K.C., an individual with bilateral HPC damage, could produce accurate sketch maps of the overall layout of his hometown and judge relative distances and directions between its major landmarks.

    “This was demonstrated in the case K.C., an individual with bilateral HPC damage, who could produce accurate sketch maps of the overall layout of his hometown (Fig. 3) and judge relative distances and directions between its major landmarks 27,81,82 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [27] Spiers, H. J. & Maguire, E. A. The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities. Neuroscience 149, 7–27 (2007). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [81] Herdman, K. A., Calarco, N., Moscovitch, M., Hirshhorn, M. & Rosenbaum, R. S. Impoverished descriptions of familiar routes in three cases of hippocampal/medial temporal lobe amnesia. Cortex 71, 248–263 (2015). This patient-lesion study provides converging evidence that the hippocampus is needed to support remote spatial memory for visuospatial details but not the gist of environments learned long ago. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [82] Rosenbaum, R. S., Cassidy, B. N. & Herdman, K. A. Patterns of preserved and impaired spatial memory in a case of developmental amnesia. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9, 196 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Navigation ability in these animals was impaired after manipulating distal cues, indicating that stable room geometry determined success.

    “Navigation ability in these animals was impaired after manipulating distal cues (for example, pictures on walls surrounding the maze), however, indicating that stable room geometry determined success.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Fogel, S., Rosenbaum, R. S. & Sekeres, M. Preserved spatial memory after hippocampal lesions: effects of extensive experience in a complex environment. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 273–275 (2005). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A spatial schema reflects the integration of spatial gists across multiple environments that have shared features, identified via statistical abstraction.

    “A spatial schema reflects the integration of spatial gists across multiple environments that have shared features, identified via statistical abstraction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In rodents and humans, sleep enhances gist extraction from memory, HPC spatial representations, and explicit knowledge of regions in space.

    “In rodents and humans, sleep has been found to enhance gist extraction from memory 89 , HPC spatial representations 101 and explicit knowledge of regions in space 29 -mechanisms that have been attributed to schema learning 22,63 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [89] Lewis, P. A. & Durrant, S. J. Overlapping memory replay during sleep builds cognitive schemata. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 343–351 (2011). source

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    • cites [101] Lee, A. K. & Wilson, M. A. Memory of sequential experience in the hippocampus during slow wave sleep. Neuron 36, 1183–1194 (2002). source

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    • cites [29] Noack, H., Schick, W., Mallot, H. & Born, J. Sleep enhances knowledge of routes and regions in spatial environments. Learn. Mem. 24, 140–144 (2017). source

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    Premisecitation

    Human concept cells seem to encode a stable representation of a specific person or landmark, regardless of size or viewing angle, providing sparse codes for visually invariant abstractions related to personal events.

    “Human 'concept cells' seem to encode a stable representation of a specific person or landmark, regardless of size or viewing angle 104,105 , providing sparse codes [G] for visually invariant abstractions related to personal events 106 .”
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    • cites [104] Quiroga, R. Q., Reddy, L., Kreiman, G., Koch, C. & Fried, I. Invariant visual representation by single neurons in the human brain. Nature 435, 1102–1107 (2005). source

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    • cites [105] Quiroga, R. Q. Neural representations across species. Science 363, 1388–1389 (2019). source

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    • cites [106] Quiroga, R. Concept cells: the building blocks of declarative memory functions. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 13, 587–597 (2012). source

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    Premisecitation

    Sleep enables extraction of regularities across instances, loss of contextual information, and retention of gist, as seen in extra-hippocampal regions.

    “On the other hand, sleep enables the extraction of regularities across instances, the loss of contextual information and the retention of gist, as seen in representations in extra-hippocampal regions 89,97 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [89] Lewis, P. A. & Durrant, S. J. Overlapping memory replay during sleep builds cognitive schemata. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 343–351 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [97] Stickgold, R. & Walker, M. P. Sleep-dependent memory triage: evolving generalization through selective processing. Nat. Neurosci. 16, 139–145 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some spatial memories retain their detailed HPC representations in perpetuity, along with their schematic representation, and these representations interact with each other, with one or the other dominating depending on conditions including time since acquisition, task demands and retrieval cues.

    “However, some spatial memories retain their detailed HPC representations in perpetuity, along with their schematic representation, and these representations interact with each other, with one or the other dominating depending on various conditions, including time since acquisition, task demands and retrieval cues 92,93 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [92] Winocur, G. & Moscovitch, M. Memory transformation and systems consolidation. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 17, 766–780 (2011). source

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    • cites [93] Sekeres, M. J., Winocur, G. & Moscovitch, M. The hippocampus and related neocortical structures in memory transformation. Neurosci. Lett. 680, 39–53 (2018). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Disruption of replay of HPC neuronal sequences in rodents during SWS severely impairs retrieval of spatial representations, suggesting that replay mechanisms are needed for consolidation of spatial memories.

    “Disruption of replay of HPC neuronal sequences in rodents during SWS 101,102 severely impairs the retrieval of spatial representations 103 , suggesting that replay mechanisms are needed for the consolidation of spatial memories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [101] Lee, A. K. & Wilson, M. A. Memory of sequential experience in the hippocampus during slow wave sleep. Neuron 36, 1183–1194 (2002). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [102] Wilson, M. A. & McNaughton, B. L. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. Science 265, 676–679 (1994). source

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    • cites [103] Girardeau, G., Benchenane, K., Wiener, S. I., Buzsaki, G. & Zugaro, M. B. Selective suppression of hippocampal ripples impairs spatial memory. Nat. Neurosci. 12, 1222–1223 (2009). source

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    Interpretationcitation

    Geometric modifications are accompanied by more substantial changes in the firing patterns of place cells than are surface modifications, suggesting that HPC remapping actively supports the role of geometry in the stability of spatial representations.

    “Geometric modifications are accompanied by more substantial changes in the firing patterns of place cells than are surface modifications 15,113,114 , suggesting that HPC remapping actively supports the role of geometry in the stability of spatial representations 115 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [15] Spiers, H., Hayman, R. M., Jovalekic, A., Marozzi, E. & Jeffery, K. J. Place field repetition and purely local remapping in a multicompartment environment. Cereb. Cortex 25, 10–25 (2015). source

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    • cites [113] Kubie, J. L., Levy, E. R. J. & Fenton, A. A. Is hippocampal remapping the physiological basis for context? Hippocampus https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.23160 (2019). source

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    • cites [114] Latuske, P., Kornienko, O., Kohler, L. & Allen, K. Hippocampal remapping and its entorhinal origin. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 11, 253 (2017). source

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    • cites [115] Hartley, T., Burgess, N., Lever, C., Cacucci, F. & O’Keefe, J. Modeling place fields in terms of the cortical inputs to the hippocampus. Hippocampus 10, 369–379 (2000). source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The HPC, guided by schemas, could extract the particular gist of the environment without attention to specific details.

    “In this way, the HPC, guided by schemas, could extract the particular gist of the environment without attention to specific details.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Remapping has been proposed to be conceived as the HPC performing 'hidden state inference', whereby sensory information is integrated with stored representations to create a 'belief' about current occupancy in the environment.

    “Such remapping has been proposed to be conceived as the HPC performing 'hidden state inference', whereby sensory information is integrated with stored representations to create a 'belief' about current occupancy in the environment 116 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [116] Sanders, H., Wilson, M. A. & Gershman, S. J. Hippocampal remapping as hidden state inference. eLife 9, e51140 (2020). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The increasing similarity between firing patterns of schema cells was not driven by visual similarity between environments, but by their common spatial geometry, and by past and future actions within the task structure.

    “The increasing similarity between firing patterns of schema cells was not driven by visual similarity between environments, as indicated by point-ofgaze maps 14,118 , but by their common spatial geometry 14 , and by past and future actions within the task structure 14,105 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] Baraduc, P., Duhamel, J. R. & Wirth, S. Schema cells in the macaque hippocampus. Science 363, 635–639 (2019). Recordings from hippocampal neurons in the macaque monkey during virtual navigation show the existence of cells that generalize parts of similar environments across environments. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [118] Wirth, S., Baraduc, P., Plante, A., Pinede, S. & Duhamel, J. R. Gaze-informed, task-situated representation of space in primate hippocampus during virtual navigation. PLoS Biol. 15, e2001045 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [105] Quiroga, R. Q. Neural representations across species. Science 363, 1388–1389 (2019). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Geometric resemblance might explain findings that people are less likely to detect changes in surface properties than geometric properties of highly familiar and extensively experienced landmarks and scenes; if such changes are detected, they are at a global or coarse level.

    “Geometric resemblance might explain findings that people are less likely to detect changes in surface properties than geometric properties of highly familiar and extensively experienced landmarks and scenes, whether tested directly by recognition or indirectly by eye-movements; if such changes are detected, the changes are at a global or coarse level 112 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [112] Rosenbaum, R. S. et al. Dramatic changes to well-known places go unnoticed. Preprint at PsyArXiv https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ypg96 (2020). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This process of biasing stored representations is akin to how schemas supported by the mPFC facilitate pattern separation to disambiguate overlapping representations: HPC cell remapping by modifying spatial firing patterns may enable the differentiation of similar experiences or locations.

    “This process of biasing stored representations is akin to how schemas supported by the mPFC facilitate pattern separation to disambiguate overlapping representations: HPC cell remapping by modifying spatial firing patterns may enable the differentiation of similar experiences or locations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Statistical pattern recognition underlies spatial gist extraction and navigation search patterns in humans.

    “A recent study that used a similar distributional learning paradigm during spatial navigation suggests that statistical pattern recognition also underlies spatial gist extraction and navigation search patterns in humans 119 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [119] Antony, J. et al. Spatial gist extraction during human memory consolidation. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 48, 929–941 (2022). Distributional learning during spatial navigation is examined in three behavioural experiments, demonstrating the extraction of spatial gist representations that decrease over time. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Schemas themselves may be better represented by cell assemblies outside of the HPC than by single schema cells, at least in humans.

    “However, schemas themselves may be better represented by cell assemblies outside of the HPC than by single schema cells, at least in humans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Although the anterior HPC may help to generate and support a spatial gist, anterior HPC is not necessarily required to maintain or retrieve spatial gists.

    “Human and rodent lesion studies suggest that although the anterior HPC may help to generate and support a spatial gist, anterior HPC is not necessarily required to maintain or retrieve spatial gists.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The influence of stored knowledge on segmentation of environments into subregions is suggested by studies showing that human spatial representations are prone to systematic biases and may be hierarchically organized, similar to semantic and event knowledge.

    “The influence of stored knowledge on segmentation of environments into subregions is suggested by studies showing that human spatial representations are prone to systematic biases 136,137 and may be hierarchically organized, similar to semantic and event knowledge 133,138,139 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [136] Tversky, B. Distortions in cognitive maps. Geoforum 23, 131–138 (1992). source

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    • cites [137] Poucet, B. Spatial cognitive maps in animals: new hypotheses on their structure and neural mechanisms. Psychol. Rev. 100, 163–182 (1993). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [133] Schick, W., Halfmann, M., Hardiess, G. & Mallot, H. A. Language cues in the formation of hierarchical representation of space. Cogn. Process. 16, S78–S78 (2015). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The posterior HPC supports detailed cognitive maps, whereas a network of extra-HPC regions including PHC, RSC and PPC supports cognitive maps transformed over repeated experiences into a spatial gist.

    “Thus, whereas the (posterior) HPC seems to support detailed cognitive maps, a network of extra-HPC regions, including the parahippocampal cortex (PHC), RSC and PPC, seems to support cognitive maps that have been transformed over repeated experiences navigating in a particular environment to form a 'spatial gist' -a summary of a specific environment 25,27,127,128 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [25] Frankland, P. W. & Bontempi, B. The organization of recent and remote memories. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6, 119–130 (2005). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [27] Spiers, H. J. & Maguire, E. A. The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities. Neuroscience 149, 7–27 (2007). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [127] Rosenbaum, R. S. et al. fMRI studies of remote spatial memory in an amnesic person. Brain Cogn. 54, 170–172 (2004).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Many of the same extra-HPC regions involved in the initial acquisition of spatial knowledge for large-scale environments are also involved in the retrieval of schematized spatial memory and event schemas, suggesting that the core elements of spatial schemas may be laid down at acquisition.

    “fMRI studies indicate that many of the same extra-HPC regions involved in the initial acquisition of spatial knowledge for large-scale environments are also involved in the retrieval of schematized spatial memory 27,83,128 and event schemas 22 , suggesting that the core elements of spatial schemas may be laid down at acquisition 92,[147][148][149][150] .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [27] Spiers, H. J. & Maguire, E. A. The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities. Neuroscience 149, 7–27 (2007). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [83] Rosenbaum, R. S., Ziegler, M., Winocur, G., Grady, C. L. & Moscovitch, M. “I have often walked down this street before”: fMRI studies on the hippocampus and other structures during mental navigation of an old environment. Hippocampus 14, 826–835 (2004). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [128] Hirshhorn, M., Grady, C., Rosenbaum, R. S., Winocur, G. & Moscovitch, M. Brain regions involved in the retrieval of spatial and episodic details associated with a familiar environment: an fMRI study. Neuropsychologia 50, 3094–3106 (2012). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Consolidation mechanisms might act on place cells in the HPC and on grid cells in the ERC, which show repeating patterns of activity in an arrangement comparable to equilateral triangles that tile the environment.

    “These consolidation mechanisms might act on place cells in the HPC and on grid cells in the entorhinal cortex (ERC), which show repeating patterns of activity in an arrangement comparable to equilateral triangles that tile the environment 11 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Moser, E. I., Moser, M.-B. & McNaughton, B. L. Spatial representation in the hippocampal formation: a history. Nat. Neurosci. 20, 1448 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The ERC may work with the HPC and occipital place area, which represent local geometry common across segments, and with the RSC, which integrates segments into a superordinate map, to give rise to a gist in the service of schema formation.

    “The ERC may work with the HPC and occipital place area, which represent local geometry common across segments, and with the RSC, which integrates segments into a superordinate map, to give rise to a gist in the service of schema formation 39 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] Peer, M. & Epstein, R. A. The human brain uses spatial schemas to represent segmented environments. Curr. Biol. 31, 4677–4688.e8 (2021). Collectively, refs 37–39 investigate the cognitive and neural precursors to, and properties of, schema formation in humans, including the effects of overlap with previously learned environments, segmentation, and the roles of the hippocampus, retrosplenial cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to one model, the HPC and RSC are hubs of two largely overlapping networks that preferentially support allocentric and egocentric spatial representations, respectively.

    “According to one model 145 , the HPC and RSC are hubs of two largely overlapping networks that preferentially support allocentric and egocentric spatial representations, respectively (see also ref. 146 ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [145] Ekstrom, A. D., Huffman, D. J. & Starrett, M. Interacting networks of brain regions underlie human spatial navigation: a review and novel synthesis of the literature. J. Neurophysiol. 118, 3328–3344 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [146] Bicanski, A. & Burgess, N. A neural-level model of spatial memory and imagery. eLife 7, e33752 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rodent HPC cells show repeated firing in multicompartment environments, with increased clustering of activity when the animal is near open doorways.

    “Rodent HPC cells show repeated firing in multicompartment environments, with increased clustering of activity when the animal is near open doorways 15,16 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [15] Spiers, H., Hayman, R. M., Jovalekic, A., Marozzi, E. & Jeffery, K. J. Place field repetition and purely local remapping in a multicompartment environment. Cereb. Cortex 25, 10–25 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Derdikman, D. et al. Fragmentation of grid cell maps in a multicompartment environment. Nat. Neurosci. 12, 1325–1332 (2009). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Regionalization using physical barriers or metric distance travelled are both determined by the global properties of the environment.

    “In either case, regionalization using physical barriers or metric distance travelled are both determined by the global properties of the environment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several brain regions have been implicated in neuroanatomical models of navigation, including the HPC, RSC, ERC, PHC, PPC, mPFC and inferior temporal cortex (ITC).

    “Several brain regions have been implicated in neuroanatomical models of navigation, including the HPC, RSC, ERC, PHC, PPC, mPFC and inferior temporal cortex (ITC) 145 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [145] Ekstrom, A. D., Huffman, D. J. & Starrett, M. Interacting networks of brain regions underlie human spatial navigation: a review and novel synthesis of the literature. J. Neurophysiol. 118, 3328–3344 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The RSC integrates egocentric and allocentric spatial frames of reference and generalizes local codes across geometrically similar environments.

    “The RSC has also been shown to integrate egocentric and allocentric spatial frames of reference 146,152 and to generalize local codes (that is, codes for specific regions, such as the southwest corner of a specific room) across geometrically similar environments (in this example, to the south-west corner of various rooms) 19,39,152 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [146] Bicanski, A. & Burgess, N. A neural-level model of spatial memory and imagery. eLife 7, e33752 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [152] Marchette, S. A., Vass, L. K., Ryan, J. & Epstein, R. A. Anchoring the neural compass: coding of local spatial reference frames in human medial parietal lobe. Nat. Neurosci. 17, 1598–1606 (2014). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] Marchette, S. A., Ryan, J. & Epstein, R. A. Schematic representations of local environmental space guide goal-directed navigation. Cognition 158, 68–80 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    fMRI repetition suppression effects in several brain regions, including the RSC, HPC and PHC, in participants navigating to target landmarks in rooms within a virtual multi-level building revealed that the repetition suppression effect was similar across rooms that had the same layout, suggesting generalization of neural representations.

    “fMRI repetition suppression [G] effects in several brain regions, including the RSC, HPC and PHC in participants navigating to target landmarks in rooms within a virtual multi-level building revealed that the repetition suppression effect was similar across rooms that had the same layout, suggesting generalization of neural representations 130 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130] Kim, M. & Maguire, E. A. Hippocampus, retrosplenial and parahippocampal cortices encode multicompartment 3D space in a hierarchical manner. Cereb. Cortex 28, 1898–1909 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The ERC achieves this outcome by learning the transition structure of an environment and the regularities that occur within it, offering a more generalized code that is optimal for spatial schema instantiation.

    “The ERC achieves this outcome by learning the transition structure of an environment and the regularities that occur within it, offering a more generalized code that is optimal for spatial schema instantiation 157 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [157] Behrens, T. E. J. et al. What is a cognitive map? Organizing knowledge for flexible behavior. Neuron 100, 490–509 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Such a representation might take a schematic form, such that similar distances across different environments are processed similarly or by the same neural populations in the RSC.

    “Such a representation might take a schematic form, such that similar distances across different environments are processed similarly or by the same neural populations in the RSC 153,154 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [153] Patai, E. Z. et al. Hippocampal and retrosplenial goal distance coding after long-term consolidation of a real-world environment. Cereb. Cortex 29, 2748–2758 (2019). This fMRI study provides evidence that the retrosplenial cortex codes spatial information in familiar environments in line with extraction of spatial knowledge to cortical regions. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [154] Spiers, H. J., & Maguire, E. A. (2006). Thoughts, behaviour, and brain dynamics during navigation in the real world. Neuroimage, 31(4), 1826–1840. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Grid cells in the ERC are posited to provide a structural scaffold for episodic events and spatial representations, with ERC acting as a mediator between HPC and neocortex by providing a geometric code for the global properties of the environment.

    “Grid cells in the ERC are posited to provide a structural scaffold for episodic events and spatial representations 7 , with ERC acting as a mediator between HPC and neocortex by providing a geometric code for the global properties of the environment 155,156 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [7] Bellmund, J. L. S., Gardenfors, P., Moser, E. I. & Doeller, C. F. Navigating cognition: spatial codes for human thinking. Science 362, eaat6766 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [155] Nau, M., Julian, J. B. & Doeller, C. F. How the brain’s navigation system shapes our visual experience. Trends Cogn. Sci. 22, 810–825 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [156] Nau, M., Navarro Schroder, T., Bellmund, J. L. S. & Doeller, C. F. Hexadirectional coding of visual space in human entorhinal cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 21, 188–190 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Schema instantiation involves pattern recognition and the regionalization of previously encountered spaces to extract a common geometric structure.

    “We suggest that schema instantiation involves pattern recognition and the regionalization of previously encountered spaces to extract a common geometric structure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    One possible explanation for the different engagement of the posterior and anterior HPC in generalization relates to spatial scale, with the posterior HPC encoding room or junction spaces, and the anterior HPC encoding large-scale (outdoor) spaces.

    “One possible explanation for the different engagement of the posterior and anterior HPC in generalization relates to spatial scale, with the posterior HPC encoding room or junction spaces, and the anterior HPC encoding large-scale (outdoor) spaces 76 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [76] Poppenk, J., Evensmoen, H. R., Moscovitch, M. & Nadel, L. Long-axis specialization of the human hippocampus. Trends Cogn. Sci. 17, 230–240 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    One approach to understanding how the built environment is organized and related to human behaviour is through the field of space syntax.

    “One approach to understanding how the built environment is organized and related to human behaviour is through the field of space syntax 166 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [166] Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In participants navigating city streets presented in film footage, the anterior HPC provided a more global code (tracking global street connections), while the posterior HPC provided a more local code (tracking local street connections).

    “In this context, the anterior HPC provided a more global code (tracking global street connections), while the posterior HPC provided a more local code (tracking local street connections) 158 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [158] Javadi, A. H. et al. Hippocampal and prefrontal processing of network topology to simulate the future. Nat. Commun. 8, 14652 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Representations of navigation plans, the regionalization of physical environments and the neural representations of physical environments are all typically hierarchical, whereby a high-level structure encompasses multiple mid-level or low-level features.

    “Representations of navigation plans 159 , the regionalization of physical environments and the neural representations of physical environments 29,160 are all typically hierarchical -whereby a high-level structure encompasses multiple mid-level or low-level features.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [159] Balaguer, J., Spiers, H., Hassabis, D. & Summerfield, C. Neural mechanisms of hierarchical planning in a virtual subway network. Neuron 90, 893–903 (2016). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [29] Noack, H., Schick, W., Mallot, H. & Born, J. Sleep enhances knowledge of routes and regions in spatial environments. Learn. Mem. 24, 140–144 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [160] Schick, W., Halfmann, M., Hardiess, G. & Mallot, H. A. Language cues in the formation of hierarchical representation of space. Cogn. Process. 15, S63–S64 (2014).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Buildings are similar to many objects in that they are constructed by assembling smaller parts into a whole, whereas buildings differ from many objects in that buildings create volumes of space through the arrangement of objects, such as walls.

    “Buildings are similar to many objects, in that they are constructed by assembling smaller parts into a whole, whereas buildings differ from many objects in that buildings create volumes of space through the arrangement of objects, such as walls 166,167 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [166] Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [167] Pallasmaa, J. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses (John Wiley & Sons, 2012).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The structure (or geometry) of an artifact is determined by the function it is meant to serve.

    “'Form follows function' is an influential design principle often followed by architects; the structure (or geometry) of an artifact is determined by the function it is meant to serve [162][163][164] .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [162] Koolhaas, R. The Generic City (Sikkens Foundation, 1995).

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    • cites [163] Kristan, W. B. & Katz, P. Form and function in systems neuroscience. Curr. Biol. 16, R828–R831 (2006). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [164] Hillier, B., Penn, A., Hanson, J., Grajewski, T. & Xu, J. Natural movement: or, configuration and attraction in urban pedestrian movement. Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des. 20, 29–66 (1993). source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Buildings establish social importance and 'meaning' through embellishments and modifications to their surface properties and structural features.

    “Buildings also establish social importance and 'meaning' through embellishments and modifications to their surface properties and structural features 165 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [165] Penn, A. & Turner, J. S. Can we identify general architectural principles that impact the collective behaviour of both human and animal systems? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 373, 20180253 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Space syntax aims to identify the series of construction steps or local rules that result in a global spatial pattern.

    “Space syntax aims to identify the series of construction steps or local rules that result in a global spatial pattern.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A building regulates the flow of air and individuals across its boundaries, similar to a living system.

    “For example, a building regulates the flow of air and individuals across its boundaries, similar to a living system 165 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [165] Penn, A. & Turner, J. S. Can we identify general architectural principles that impact the collective behaviour of both human and animal systems? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 373, 20180253 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    A posterior region, such as AG, may bind the contents and the structure of experience at a higher level of abstraction than does the HPC and is probably an important area for relating spatial gists to spatial schema.

    “A posterior region, such as AG, may bind the contents and the structure of experience at a higher level of abstraction than does the HPC 161 and, thus, is probably an important area for relating spatial gists to spatial schema (summarised in Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [161] Summerfield, C., Luyckx, F. & Sheahan, H. Structure learning and the parietal cortex. Prog. Neurobiol. 184, 101717 (2020). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Regions implicated in scene-processing, such as the parahippocampal place area and RSC, have a role in the integration of common local properties such as surface features.

    “Regions implicated in scene-processing, such as the parahippocampal place area and RSC, have a role in the integration of common local properties such as surface features.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Space syntax theorists have identified other elementary formulae besides the courtyard complex and the beady-ring templates, such as central spaces, blocks and ring streets.

    “Space syntax theorists have identified other elementary formulae besides the courtyard complex and the beady-ring templates, such as central spaces, blocks and ring streets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Through qualitative analysis of verbal descriptions of Boston residents, Lynch found that the presence of these essential elements in their descriptions was associated with the ease with which navigators understand the spatial coherence of their environment.

    “Through qualitative analysis of verbal descriptions of Boston residents, Lynch found that the presence of these essential elements in their descriptions was associated with the ease with which navigators understand the spatial coherence of their environment 33 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Lynch, K. The Image of the City. Vol. 11 (MIT Press, 1960).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Five elements - landmarks, paths, nodes, edges and districts - have been identified as building blocks of a common understanding of the space that is shared amongst people with extensive experience of the region.

    “Five elements -landmarks, paths, nodes, edges and districts -have been identified as building blocks of a common understanding of the space that is shared amongst people with extensive experience of the region.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Findings from spatial cognition studies in humans show that semantic knowledge and language cues exert a powerful influence on human spatial judgements and may contribute to spatial schemas.

    “As mentioned in the section on regionalization of space, findings from spatial cognition studies in humans show that semantic knowledge and language cues exert a powerful influence on human spatial judgements 29,138 and may contribute to spatial schemas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [29] Noack, H., Schick, W., Mallot, H. & Born, J. Sleep enhances knowledge of routes and regions in spatial environments. Learn. Mem. 24, 140–144 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [138] Waller, D. E. & Nadel, L. E. Handbook of Spatial Cognition (American Psychological Association, 2013). source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Spatial forms have been proposed to be a 'fossil' that reflects the social and psychological characteristics of a group of people that share common linguistic and cultural values.

    “Spatial forms have also been proposed to be a 'fossil' the reflects the social and psychological characteristics of a group of people that share common linguistic and cultural values 166,170 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [166] Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [170] Levi-Strauss, C. Structural Anthropology Translated from the French by Jacobson, C. & Grundfest Schoepf, B. (Basic Books, 1963).

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Premisecitation

    When navigating recently learned city streets in London, UK, activity in the anterior HPC increases when entering streets with greater global connections (higher integration) and decreases when entering streets that are less globally connected.

    “When navigating recently learned city streets in London, UK, activity in the anterior HPC increases when entering streets with greater global connections (that is, with higher integration) and decreases when entering streets that are less globally connected 176 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [176] Bettencourt, L. & West, G. A unified theory of urban living. Nature 467, 912 (2010). source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Premisecitation

    Industrial cities in different regions of the world exhibit scale-invariant structural characteristics (for example, road networks), whereas the number of nodes and their configuration depends on infrastructure development, size and other sociocultural factors.

    “Industrial cities in different regions of the world are suggested to exhibit scale-invariant structural characteristics (for example, road networks) 40,129 , whereas the number of nodes and their configuration depends on infrastructure development, size and other sociocultural factors 40 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [40] Lee, M., Barbosa, H., Youn, H., Holme, P. & Ghoshal, G. Morphology of travel routes and the organization of cities. Nat. Commun. 8, 2229 (2017). source

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    • cites [129] Batty, M. Cities and Complexity: Understanding Cities with Cellular Automata, Agent-Based Models, and Fractals (The MIT Press, 2007).

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A city street network is transformed into a network of lines using its topological properties.

    “First, a city street network is transformed into a network of lines using its topological properties 34,[173][174][175] .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [34] Filomena, G., Verstegen, J. & Manley, E. A computational approach to ‘The Image of the City’. Cities 89, 14–25 (2019). The authors apply a mathematical analysis to the layout of cities to identify hidden structures in the street layouts for regions. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [173] Manley, E., Addison, J. & Cheng, T. Shortest path or anchor-based route choice: a large-scale empirical analysis of minicab routing in London. J. Transp. Geogr. 43, 123–139 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] Manley, E., Orr, S. W. & Cheng, T. A heuristic model of bounded route choice in urban areas. Transp. Res. C. Emerg. Technol. 56, 195–209 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Space syntax has been used to study prototypical spatial patterns on a global scale (for example, across different street grids).

    “Space syntax has been used to study prototypical spatial patterns on a global scale (for example, across different street grids) 166,172 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [166] Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [172] Peponis, J., Zimring, C. & Choi, Y. K. Finding the building in wayfinding. Environ. Behav. 22, 555–590 (1990). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The posterior HPC is responsive on entering streets and reacts to connectivity, showing higher activity when entering a road with many connections than a road with dead-end.

    “The posterior HPC is also responsive on entering streets, but rather than signalling a global code, it reacts to the connectivity (for example, showing higher activity when entering a road with many connections than a road with dead-end).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    A long straight main road can be represented as a single axial line or as a large set of connected street segments.

    “For example, a long straight main road can be represented as a single axial line [G] or as a large set of connected street segments [G].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The connectivity of a space in view is reflected in the activity of the occipital place area.

    “Recent work has shown that the connectivity of a space in view is reflected in the activity of the occipital place area 18 , but how this connectivity extends to active navigation is not known.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] McKenzie, S. et al. Hippocampal representation of related and opposing memories develop within distinct, hierarchically organized neural schemas. Neuron 83, 202–215 (2014). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These statistical commonalities of mobility patterns characterize the underlying structure of a city and navigational behaviours, and provide support for the notion of a spatial schema for an environment with key elements that can be generalized to other environments that belong to a superordinate category.

    “Given that these statistical commonalities of mobility patterns characterize the underlying structure of a city 41,43 and navigational behaviours 34,117,178,179 , they provide support for the notion of a spatial schema for an environment with key elements that can be generalized to other environments that belong to a superordinate category 159 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [41] Lämmer, S., Gehlsen, B. & Helbing, D. Scaling laws in the spatial structure of urban road networks. Phys. A Stat. Mech. Appl. 363, 89–95 (2006). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [43] Roth, C., Kang, S. M., Batty, M. & Barthelemy, M. Structure of urban movements: polycentric activity and entangled hierarchical flows. PLoS One 6, e15923 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [34] Filomena, G., Verstegen, J. & Manley, E. A computational approach to ‘The Image of the City’. Cities 89, 14–25 (2019). The authors apply a mathematical analysis to the layout of cities to identify hidden structures in the street layouts for regions. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Measures that involve egocentric information have been derived within the space syntax framework to characterize spatial relationships in scenes (vista spaces).

    “Alongside the allocentric graph-theoretic indices such as integration and choice, measures that involve egocentric information have been derived within the from space syntax framework to characterize spatial relationships in scenes (also known as vista spaces).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Viewshed analysis (which uses 2D polygons known as isovists to represent the visible area from a given vantage point) has been used to characterize local scenes.

    “For example, viewshed analysis (which uses 2D polygons known as isovists to represent the visible area from a given vantage point) have been used to characterize local scenes 186 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [186] Bonner, M. F. & Epstein, R. A. Computational mechanisms underlying cortical responses to the affordance properties of visual scenes. PLoS Comput. Biol. 14, e1006111 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The distinction between geometric and surface properties as two forms of spatial representation parallels the dissociable gist and detailed aspects of remote spatial memories.

    “We have discussed the distinction between geometric and surface properties as two forms of spatial representation that parallel the dissociable gist and detailed aspects of remote spatial memories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A spatial schema is a consolidated distribution of spatial gists for a given prototype.

    “A spatial schema is a consolidated distribution of spatial gists for a given prototype (panels a,d).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With extensive practice across 3 months, rats show improved performance, indicated by increased digging time in the correct location and fewer errors when choosing the location in which to dig first.

    “With extensive practice across 3 months, the rats show improved performance, indicated by increased digging time in the correct location and fewer errors when choosing the location in which to dig first.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Alonso, A., van der Meij, J., Tse, D. & Genzel, L. Naïve to expert: considering the role of previous knowledge in memory. Brain Neurosci. Adv. 4, 2398212820948686 (2020). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The RSC serves as a hub for translating information between two orthogonal frames: detailed or local cues versus coarse or global cues, and egocentric versus allocentric.

    “The RSC serves as a hub for translating information between two orthogonal frames: detailed or local cues versus coarse or global cues, and egocentric versus allocentric.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Environment geometry input is received by the entorhinal cortex (ERC).

    “Environment geometry input is received by the entorhinal cortex (ERC).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Statistical learning of spatial context is integrated in the angular gyrus (AG) and mPFC into spatial schemas and is continuously updated through reciprocal connections with HPC and other posterior regions.

    “Statistical learning of spatial context is integrated in the angular gyrus (AG) and mPFC into spatial schemas and is continuously updated through reciprocal connections with HPC and other posterior regions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HPC-lesioned rats were severely impaired in room change and village rotation conditions, but performed well in the cue distortion condition.

    “HPC-lesioned rats were severely impaired in room change and village rotation conditions, but performed well in the cue distortion condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., Fogel, S., Rosenbaum, R. S. & Sekeres, M. Preserved spatial memory after hippocampal lesions: effects of extensive experience in a complex environment. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 273–275 (2005). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Schemas are dynamic knowledge structures formed by extracting generalizable common features of particular detailed episodic events.

    “Schemas are dynamic knowledge structures formed by extracting generalizable common features of particular detailed episodic events.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A network of posterior regions, including parahippocampal cortex (PHC) and posterior parietal cortex (PPC), is involved in representing perceptual features and spatial relations.

    “A network of posterior regions, including parahippocampal cortex (PHC) and posterior parietal cortex (PPC), is involved in representing perceptual features and spatial relations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Schemas may be built through specific expectations on the basis of a store of many repeated cognitive maps, culminating in a meta-map prediction of what lies ahead in the environment in which we are navigating.

    “Schemas may be built through specific expectations on the basis of a store of many repeated cognitive maps, culminating in a meta-map prediction of what lies ahead in the environment in which we are navigating.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) facilitates schema development by linking spatial features with goal-relevant actions and behaviours.

    “The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) facilitates schema development by linking spatial features with goal-relevant actions and behaviours.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A cognitive map can vary in precision from a highly detailed map to a gist, whereas a schema is a knowledge structure that is extracted from multiple gist-like cognitive maps in a way that is similar to how schemas form from events.

    “A cognitive map can vary in precision from a highly detailed map to a gist, whereas a schema is a knowledge structure that is extracted from multiple gist-like cognitive maps in a way that is similar to how schemas form from events.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Argentina and the USA have the largest gap in performance between those who grew up inside cities versus those who grew up outside cities, whereas Romania lies at the other end of the scale.

    “Argentina and the USA have the largest gap in performance between those who grew up inside cites versus those who grew up outside cities, whereas Romania lies at the other end of the scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [117] Coutrot, A. et al. Entropy of city street networks linked to future spatial navigation ability. Nature 604, 104–110 (2022). This study reports evidence that growing up in griddy cities adapts navigators to navigate better in grid-like environments but less so in more disorganized environments. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although the overall spatial configuration of K.C.'s sketch map was intact, he included fewer streets and landmarks than did control participants.

    “Although the overall spatial configuration of K.C.'s sketch map was intact, he included fewer streets and landmarks than did control participants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [213] Kok, P., Mostert, P. & de Lange, F. P. Prior expectations induce prestimulus sensory templates. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 10473–10478 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sketch maps drawn by other individuals with amnesia relating to bilateral hippocampal damage are similarly accurate in terms of overall layout yet similarly impoverished in detail.

    “Sketch maps drawn by other individuals with amnesia relating to bilateral hippocampal damage are similarly accurate in terms of overall layout yet similarly impoverished in detail 81,82 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [81] Herdman, K. A., Calarco, N., Moscovitch, M., Hirshhorn, M. & Rosenbaum, R. S. Impoverished descriptions of familiar routes in three cases of hippocampal/medial temporal lobe amnesia. Cortex 71, 248–263 (2015). This patient-lesion study provides converging evidence that the hippocampus is needed to support remote spatial memory for visuospatial details but not the gist of environments learned long ago. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [82] Rosenbaum, R. S., Cassidy, B. N. & Herdman, K. A. Patterns of preserved and impaired spatial memory in a case of developmental amnesia. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9, 196 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Participants who reported growing up in cities from the low-SNE countries were most impacted by environments in Sea Hero Quest with a high SNE, and marginally better at navigating gridlike environments with a low SNE.

    “Participants who reported growing up in cities from the low-SNE countries were most impacted by environments in Sea Hero Quest with a high SNE, and marginally better at navigating gridlike environments with a low SNE.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [117] Coutrot, A. et al. Entropy of city street networks linked to future spatial navigation ability. Nature 604, 104–110 (2022). This study reports evidence that growing up in griddy cities adapts navigators to navigate better in grid-like environments but less so in more disorganized environments. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The hippocampus is needed for detailed spatial representations, similar to its role in episodic memory.

    “This pattern of performance suggests that the hippocampus is needed for detailed spatial representations, similar to its role in episodic memory [4][5][6]20 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4][5][6]20

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Neural network models are powerful tools for understanding pattern recognition mechanisms that underlie visual perception, whereas Bayesian generative models explain how abstract prior knowledge is used to make inferences about familiar and novel stimuli.

    “Neural network models are powerful tools for understanding pattern recognition mechanisms that underlie visual perception, whereas Bayesian generative models explain how abstract prior knowledge is used to make inferences about familiar and novel stimuli 28,[201][202][203] .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites 28,[201][202][203]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    L.G.'s knowledge of the routes and of the locations of landmarks along them were intact; he needed only to be reminded of the goal for the representation to be expressed appropriately during navigation.

    “L.G.'s knowledge of the routes and of the locations of landmarks along them were intact; he needed only to be reminded of the goal for the representation to be expressed appropriately during navigation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [199] Rosenbaum, R. S., Winocur, G., Grady, C. L., Ziegler, M. & Moscovitch, M. Memory for familiar environments learned in the remote past: fMRI studies of healthy people and an amnesic person with extensive bilateral hippocampal lesions. Hippocampus 17, 1241–1251 (2007). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) features prominently in the literature on event schemas in humans.

    “The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) features prominently in the literature on event schemas in humans 22,190 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [22] Gilboa, A. & Marlatte, H. Neurobiology of schemas and schema-mediated memory. Trends Cogn. Sci. 21, 618–631 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [190] Rosenbaum, R. S. et al. The case of KC: contributions of a memory-impaired person to memory theory. Neuropsychologia 43, 989–1021 (2005). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Familiar places are drawn larger than unfamiliar places.

    “This value attribution may be reflected in the finding that familiar places are drawn larger than unfamiliar places 141 , as well-known places are most likely to be valued or to contain reward.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [141] Jafarpour, A. & Spiers, H. Familiarity expands space and contracts time. Hippocampus 27, 12–16 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Formal artificial intelligence models provide flexibility in planning and account for a range of biological processes at neural and behavioural levels.

    “Formal artificial intelligence models provide flexibility in planning and account for a range of biological processes at neural and behavioural levels 204 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [204] Kriegeskorte, N. & Douglas, P. K. Cognitive computational neuroscience. Nat. Neurosci. 21, 1148–1160 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Studies that focus on mathematical analyses of topology have helped us gain insight into spatial patterns that characterize different types of environments.

    “Studies that focus on mathematical analyses of topology have helped us gain insight into spatial patterns that characterize different types of environments 43,135,208 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [43] Roth, C., Kang, S. M., Batty, M. & Barthelemy, M. Structure of urban movements: polycentric activity and entangled hierarchical flows. PLoS One 6, e15923 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] Louail, T. et al. Uncovering the spatial structure of mobility networks. Nat. Commun. 6, 6007 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [208] de Cothi, W. J. et al. Predictive maps in rats and humans for spatial navigation. Curr. Biol. 32, 3676–3689.e5 (2022). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sections of the urban fabric of Mumbai can be deformed using topological transformations into the suburban neighbourhoods of Las Vegas or into the regular grid structure of New York city blocks.

    “For example, sections of the urban fabric of Mumbai can be deformed using topological transformations into the suburban neighbourhoods of Las Vegas or into the regular grid structure of New York city blocks 208 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [208] de Cothi, W. J. et al. Predictive maps in rats and humans for spatial navigation. Curr. Biol. 32, 3676–3689.e5 (2022). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A dominant model of modern city form is the clustering of economic activities in urban hubs, known as polycentricity.

    “For example, a dominant model of modern city form is the clustering of economic activities in urban hubs, known as polycentricity 43,209 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [43] Roth, C., Kang, S. M., Batty, M. & Barthelemy, M. Structure of urban movements: polycentric activity and entangled hierarchical flows. PLoS One 6, e15923 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [209] Brelsford, C., Martin, T., Hand, J. & Bettencourt, L. M. A. Toward cities without slums: Topology and the spatial evolution of neighborhoods. Sci. Adv. 4, eaar4644 (2018). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The patterns of individuals' movement to and from urban hubs across cities can be collected using GIS tools and phone-usage data.

    “The patterns of individuals' movement to and from urban hubs across cities can be collected using GIS (geographic information system) tools and phone-usage data 40,43,177,210 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [40] Lee, M., Barbosa, H., Youn, H., Holme, P. & Ghoshal, G. Morphology of travel routes and the organization of cities. Nat. Commun. 8, 2229 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [43] Roth, C., Kang, S. M., Batty, M. & Barthelemy, M. Structure of urban movements: polycentric activity and entangled hierarchical flows. PLoS One 6, e15923 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [177] Schneider, C. M., Belik, V., Couronne, T., Smoreda, Z. & Gonzalez, M. C. Unravelling daily human mobility motifs. J. R. Soc. Interface 10, 20130246 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [210] Berry, B. J. & Garrison, W. L. The functional bases of the central place hierarchy. Econ. Geogr. 34, 145–154 (1958). source

      Not checked in the free run.

105 of 105

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The various posterior regions play specialized roles in representing components of surface properties and their relations and/or coding of these properties within local or global scales.

    “although the various posterior regions play specialized roles in representing components of surface properties and their relations and/or coding of these properties within local or global scales”
1 of 1

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Memory of navigational episodes emerges from the interaction of multiple parallel spatial representations, each supported by a widespread hippocampal-neocortical network.

    “Taken together, our findings suggest that memory of navigational episodes emerges from the interaction of multiple parallel spatial representations, each supported by a widespread hippocampal–neocortical network2,5,38.”

    From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]

    The ‘Memory consolidation, generalization and hippocampal replay’ section says detailed and schematic spatial representations can coexist and interact. The ‘Networks and hubs for spatial schemas’ section describes interacting brain networks that support navigation and spatial memory. But the paper does not establish that each representation is supported by a widespread hippocampal–neocortical network; its Introduction says spatial schemas can be independent of the hippocampus. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • For natural environments, memory of spatial navigational episodes mostly occurs against the backdrop of semantic knowledge and patterns extracted from previous experiences that shape expectations and guide behaviour.

    “For natural environments, memory of spatial navigational episodes mostly occurs against the backdrop of semantic knowledge and patterns extracted from previous experiences that shape our expectations and guide actual behaviour2,5.”

    From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]

  • Memory of egocentric and allocentric representational modes relies on at least partially dissociable neural substrates.

    “Studies suggest that memory of these representational modes relies on at least partially dissociable neural substrates5,11,12.”

    From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]

  • Long-term spatial memory of navigational episodes may shift from a detailed cognitive map to a more gist-like spatial representation.

    “Instead, several details fade, whereas other aspects remain salient, thus suggesting that long-term spatial memory of navigational episodes may shift from a detailed cognitive map to a more gist-like spatial representation5.”

    From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]

  • Cognitive maps, spatial gist and spatial schema are not three successive steps of abstraction of an initial experience but rather three classes of spatial representations with distinct relationships to navigational episodes that exist in parallel and mutually influence each other.

    “In this framework, cognitive maps, spatial gist and spatial schema are not three successive steps of abstraction of an initial experience but rather three classes of spatial representations with distinct relationships to navigational episodes that exist in parallel and mutually influence each other5.”

    From Long-term Memory Reorganization of Navigational Episodes (2026) · cites this paper as [5]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conflicting results for altered distal cues

    Major

    The main text says that manipulating distal cues impaired navigation in experienced hippocampal-lesioned rats. The figure caption says those rats performed well in the cue-distortion condition.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. O’Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map (Clarendon Press, 1978).
  2. Bartlett, F. Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology (Cambridge University Press, 1932).
  3. Lynch, K. The Image of the City. Vol. 11 (MIT Press, 1960).
  4. Sommer, T. The emergence of knowledge and how it supports the memory for novel related information. Cereb. Cortex 27, 1906–1921 (2017).
  5. Rosenbaum, R. S. et al. fMRI studies of remote spatial memory in an amnesic person. Brain Cogn. 54, 170–172 (2004).
  6. Batty, M. Cities and Complexity: Understanding Cities with Cellular Automata, Agent-Based Models, and Fractals (The MIT Press, 2007).
  7. Schirmer, P. M. & Axhausen, K. W. A multiscale classification of urban morphology. J. Transp. Land Use 9, 101–130 (2016).
  8. Schick, W., Halfmann, M., Hardiess, G. & Mallot, H. A. Language cues in the formation of hierarchical representation of space. Cogn. Process. 15, S63–S64 (2014).
  9. Hillier, B. & Julienne, H. The Social Logic of Space (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
  10. Pallasmaa, J. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses (John Wiley & Sons, 2012).
  11. Wertheimer, M. in A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology (ed Willis. E) (Humanities Press, 1950).
  12. McNamee, D., Wolpert, D. & Lengyel, M. in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 29 (NIPS, 2016).

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Farzanfar, D., Spiers, H. J., Moscovitch, M., & Rosenbaum, R. S.
Affiliations
  • University of Toronto (CA)
  • University College London (GB)
  • York University (CA)
ORCID
Venue
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2022-11-21
Volume
24
Issue
2
Pages
63-79
ISSN
  • 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
  • 1471-0048
DOI
10.1038/s41583-022-00655-9
OpenAlex
W4309646944
Cited by
115
References
198
Citations by year
2026: 25 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 24
FWCI
1.89
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Canada First Research Excellence Fund
  • Canadian Institutes of Health Research
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Urban Design and Spatial Analysis
Keywords
spatial schema, cognitive maps, event schemas, spatial memory, episodic memory, spatial navigation, memory consolidation, urban layout, urban analytics, scale, regionalization, non-human animals
MeSH terms
Memory Consolidation, Animals, Cognition, Humans

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