Neurodiversity, epistemic injustice, and the good human life
Open accessAbstract
Epistemic injustice refers to harms that relate specifically to our status as epistemic agents, whereby our status as knowers, interpreters, and providers of information, is unduly diminished or stifled in a way that undermines the agent's agency and dignity.The concept was defined by Miranda Fricker (2007), who identifies two key forms of epistemic injustice.The first is testimonial injustice, which refers to cases where testimony is unduly dismissed because of prejudiced beliefs regarding minority groups.Hermeneutical injustice refers to cases where a community's shared vocabularies have been structured in a way that unfairly distorts or stifles understanding for, and of, a minority group.In each case, there is an instance of people being harmed specifically in their capacity as knowers: individuals capable of knowing or providing knowledge.Much work on epistemic injustice has identified the operation of negative stereotypes relating to gender and race; for instance, when someone's testimony is dismissed, doubted, or accorded low credibility due to racist or sexist prejudices on the part of the listener (Dotson, 2011;Fricker, 2007; Kidd et al., 2017;Medina, 2013).But in recent years research has drawn attention to epistemic injustice in healthcare generally, and more specifically within psychiatry, pediatrics, and among people with disabilities (Blease et al., 2016;Carel & Kidd, 2014;Crichton et al., 2016; Kidd & Carel, 2016, 2019;Potter, 2015).What has been revealed is the systematic stifling of the voices and interpretive tools available to both ill and disabled persons: in particular, their information providing, testimonies, and interpretations.These types of epistemic injustice have been associated with the medical deficit model that dominates much of medical and psychiatric discourse (Kidd & Carel, 2018, 2019).Moreover, physically disabled persons' claims that they are happy and living good lives have also been dismissed due to prejudices about the possibility of living well whilst disabled (Blease et al., 2016;
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that autistic people face interlocking testimonial and hermeneutical epistemic injustices that make it difficult or impossible to recognize them as both autistic and living a good life. It proposes neurodiversity-informed reforms to conceptions of flourishing and to clinical and everyday epistemic practice.
Key findings
- Autistic testimony about happiness and wellbeing is subject to pathocentric testimonial injustice: credibility is dismissed through stereotypes such as “mindblindness,” limited social understanding, and the assumption that autism and happiness are inherently at odds. The paper cites Dinah Murray’s claim that autism disclosure is “likely to precipitate a negative judgment of capacity involving permanent loss of credibility” and discusses accusations that Naoki Higashida’s articulate voice could not be “genuine.”
- Hermeneutical injustice operates through species-norm conceptions of flourishing: neo-Aristotelian and objective-list views, including Nussbaum, Furman and Tuminello, and Barnbaum, treat autistic cognition as not “truly human” or as at odds with flourishing unless therapy erases defining autistic traits. This excludes neurodivergent modes of flourishing from shared interpretive resources.
- These injustices combine into “autism’s catch-22”: if an autistic person is living a good life, they are denied recognition of their autism; if they are not living a good life, their autism is recognized and their suffering is presumed to be caused by autism. The paper states that “I am autistic and I am flourishing” is not intelligible under this framing.
- The paper proposes four ameliorative approaches: dismantling the medical deficit approach to autism; relativizing value judgments about the good life; cultivating autistic self-understanding and autistic epistemic communities; and fostering neurotypical epistemic humility and cross-cultural communication.
Methods
- Conceptual and philosophical analysis in philosophy of disability and philosophy of medicine; no empirical study, sample, or original quantitative data are reported.
- The argument draws on Miranda Fricker’s testimonial and hermeneutical injustice, the neurodiversity paradigm, social and relational models of disability, and critiques of species-norm accounts of flourishing.
- Evidence used includes cited empirical literature and first-person autistic accounts; the paper’s main analysis is normative and theoretical, culminating in proposed ameliorative strategies.
Limitations
- Stated: the paper brackets debates about how far the neurodiversity paradigm applies across the autism spectrum, supposing it applies “to some extent at least”; it does not commit to a single alternative model of disability; and it says its arguments do not automatically apply to other groups.
- Evident: there is no new empirical data, systematic review, or tested intervention; the argument relies on selected cited studies and testimony.
- Evident: the focus is autism, with extension to other neurocognitive disabilities presented as a question for future research rather than a demonstrated conclusion.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
10 of 91 cited sources checked · 5 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Research has revealed systematic stifling of the voices and interpretive tools available to ill and disabled persons, especially their information providing, testimonies, and interpretations.
“What has been revealed is the systematic stifling of the voices and interpretive tools available to both ill and disabled persons: in particular, their information providing, testimonies, and interpretations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked- cites Blease et al., 2016 source
- cites Carel & Kidd, 2014 source
Section 1, “Testimonial and hermeneutical injustice” (page unavailable), describes how ill people’s testimony and interpretations can be ignored, downgraded, or treated merely as information. Section 2 gives an example involving a disabled person, but the paper does not establish systematic stifling across disabled people as a group; its broader analysis focuses on ill people. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Crichton et al., 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Physically disabled persons' claims that they are happy and living good lives have been dismissed due to prejudices about the possibility of living well whilst disabled.
“Moreover, physically disabled persons' claims that they are happy and living good lives have also been dismissed due to prejudices about the possibility of living well whilst disabled (Blease et al., 2016;”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Blease et al., 2016 source
The Testimonial injustice section (p. 3) says that negative stereotyping of an illness or disability can constrain a patient's contribution to consultations. The Summary (p. 7) reports that stereotypes can lead to patients with CFS/ME having their testimony discounted. Neither passage addresses physically disabled people’s claims that they are happy or living good lives, or prejudice about whether living well with a disability is possible. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Interpretationreasoning
The neurodiversity paradigm's rejection of the species-norm is at odds with the widespread assumption that autism causes autistic distress to the extent that autistic individuals are inherently disposed to lower wellbeing compared to a neurotypical norm.
“as well as the widespread assumption noted by researchers (e.g., Bovell, 2015, p. 265;Verhoeff, 2012, p. 429) that autism causes autistic distress to the extent that autistic individuals are inherently disposed to lower wellbeing when compared to a neurotypical norm.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Bovell, 2015 source
- cites Verhoeff, 2012 source
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- The authors state this as an assumption: The neurodiversity framing can be applied to the autism spectrum to some extent at least.
- Premisecitation
In the DSM-5, the notion of dysfunction is more based on value judgments than scientific discovery.
“This is reflected in the DSM-5, where the notion of”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Aftab & Rashed, 2020 source
- Premisecitation
Milton and Sims found that a key reason autistic people attributed to hindering their wellbeing was barriers to belonging, rather than simply their being autistic.
“For instance, Milton and Sims found that a key reason autistic people attributed to hindering their wellbeing was barriers to belonging, rather than simply their being autistic (Milton & Sims, 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Milton & Sims, 2016 source
- Premisecitation
Dominant conceptions of the good life, including flourishing, typically rely on species-typical intuitions regarding what is good or desirable, and so encounter a methodological issue when tasked with accounting for neurodivergent modes of flourishing grounded in atypical intuitions.
“Their point is that dominant conceptions of the good life, including of flourishing, typically rely on species-typical intuitions regarding what is good or desirable, and so encounter a methodological issue when tasked with accounting for neurodivergent modes of flourishing that may be grounded in atypical intuitions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Rodogno et al., 2016 source
- Findingcitation
Even significant illness and disability, such as cancer, renal failure, and paralysis, have been shown to have a surprisingly small intrinsic effect on levels of wellbeing as such.
“Indeed, even significant illness and disability, such as cancer, renal failure, and paralysis, have been shown to have a surprisingly small intrinsic effect on levels of wellbeing as such.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Findingcitation
People experiencing a wide range of illnesses and disabilities often report paradoxically high levels of quality of life and mood.
“People experiencing a wide range of illnesses and disabilities often report paradoxically high levels of [quality of life] and mood”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ubel et al., 2005 source
- Findingcitation
Autistic empathic understanding does arise between autistics.
“and moreover that autistic empathic understanding does arise between autistics (Chapman, 2019b;Milton, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2019b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Milton, 2012 source
- Findingcitation
Neurotypicals equally struggle to understand autistics.
“a body of evidence has been accumulating which shows that neurotypicals equally struggle to understand autistics”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2019b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Milton, 2012 source
- Premisecitation
These types of epistemic injustice have been associated with the medical deficit model that dominates much medical and psychiatric discourse.
“These types of epistemic injustice have been associated with the medical deficit model that dominates much of medical and psychiatric discourse (Kidd & Carel, 2018, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kidd & Carel, 2018, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Minority forms of human flourishing have been blocked from view.
“But it is also important for ethical theory more generally since it indicates that minority forms of human flourishing have been blocked from view.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Autistic persons are subject to an epistemic double-bind that culminates in being caught in a catch-22.
“We will now argue that the issue here is in significant part one of epistemic injustice, whereby autistic persons are subject to an epistemic double-bind that culminates in being caught in a catch-22.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The neurodiversity framing can be applied to the autism spectrum to some extent at least.
- Interpretationreasoning
The neurodiversity movement's use of social models of disability and issues with species-norm accounts of functioning give initial reason to think the medical deficit view regarding autism and the good life may be wrong.
“We suggested that the neurodiversity movement's use of social models of disability, as well as issues noted with the reliance on species-norm accounts of functioning, gives initial reason to think that the medical deficit view regarding autism and the good life may be wrong.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The neurodiversity framing can be applied to the autism spectrum to some extent at least.
- Interpretationcitation
Autism is often associated with stereotypes that unjustly limit credibility, such as viewing autistic persons as unreliable narrators and interpreters of social situations, lacking understanding of social situations, or having abnormal perceptions.
“Autism is often associated with stereotypes that unjustly limit credibility, for example, viewing autistic persons as unreliable narrators and interpreters of social situations, lacking in understanding of social situations, or having”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
There is more general testimonial injustice when it comes to autistic voices specifically due to prejudiced beliefs regarding autism.
“On the one hand, there's more general testimonial injustice when it comes to autistic voices specifically due to prejudiced beliefs regarding autism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Medical deficit accounts typically associate autism with empathy deficits alongside general cognitive and sensory processing issues taken to have an underlying biological basis.
“While the underlying biological mechanisms are complex and heterogenous, medical deficit accounts typically associate autism with empathy deficits alongside general cognitive and sensory processing issues that are in turn taken to have an underlying biological basis (Baron-Cohen, 2008;Frith, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Baron-Cohen, 2008 source
- cites Frith, 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
In practice, epistemic injustice culminates in a catch-22 paradoxical situation whereby individuals are routinely seen as happy or autistic, but rarely both.
“In practice, we show how this culminates in a catch-22 paradoxical situation whereby individuals are routinely seen as happy or autistic, but rarely both.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Many disabled persons report levels of wellbeing only slightly lower than average levels reported by those who are not disabled.
“Despite being widely assumed, however, it is worth considering how many disabled persons in fact report levels of wellbeing that are only slightly lower than average levels reported by those who are not disabled (Gilbert, 2006, p. 153).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gilbert, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given
Autistic persons suffer unjust credibility deficits that stem from negative stereotypes commonly held about persons with autism.
“First, as we will cover in this section, they suffer unjust credibility deficits that stem from negative stereotypes commonly held about persons with autism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Many studies report no difference in levels of reported wellbeing between groups of people with a variety of medicalized conditions and healthy controls.
“Many studies report no difference in levels of reported wellbeing between groups of people with a variety of medicalized conditions and healthy controls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The neurodiversity paradigm's rejection of the species-norm is at odds with naturalist positions in the philosophical literature regarding human flourishing that exclude autistic individuals.
“For the neurodiversity paradigm, rejection of the species-norm is at odds not just with dominant medical accounts.It is also, we contend, at odds with both naturalist positions in the philosophical literature regarding human flourishing that exclude autistic individuals (Furman & Tuminello, 2015;Nussbaum, 2006),”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Furman & Tuminello, 2015 source
- cites Nussbaum, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The neurodiversity framing can be applied to the autism spectrum to some extent at least.
- Premisecitation
Angner et al. (2009) concluded that medical conditions are associated with lower happiness scores only if they disrupt daily functioning or are associated with social stigma.
“They conclude that”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Angner et al., 2009 source
- Premisereasoning
The neurodiversity framing gets much of its force via its proponents drawing on social or relational models of disability.
“The neurodiversity framing gets much of its force via its proponents drawing on social or relational models of disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The notion of normal functioning has faced heavy criticism because adaptive genetic diversity and plasticity in humans render a restricted functional norm unconvincing.
“However, the notion of normal functioning has faced heavy criticism, insofar as the adaptive genetic diversity and plasticity found in humans render the idea that there is a restricted functional norm unconvincing (see, e.g., Amundson, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Amundson, 2000 source
- Interpretationreasoning
Epistemic injustice limits our capacity to recognize, understand, and cultivate autistic thriving and wellbeing.
“With this in mind, we here identify, in addition to the injustices noted by social model proponents, that epistemic injustice limits our capacity to recognize, understand, and cultivate autistic thriving and wellbeing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The neurodiversity framing can be applied to the autism spectrum to some extent at least.
- Interpretationreasoning
Epistemic injustice itself is another form of external harm that can lower wellbeing levels.
“It is important to note that epistemic injustice itself is, like disabling barriers, another form of external harm that can lower wellbeing levels.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Encountering prejudice and being unfairly accorded low credibility are additional external sources of harm that can impact one's wellbeing.
“Encountering prejudice and being unfairly accorded low credibility are additional external sources of harm that can impact on one's wellbeing and therefore need to be taken into account in our analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Static or temporary snapshot conceptions of species-standard norms can be arbitrary and epistemically violent toward minority disabled modes of flourishing.
“Most relevantly, Merriam has noted that the notion that static or even temporary snapshot conceptions of species-standard norms can show us how we should live may be both arbitrary and epistemically violent toward minority disabled modes of flourishing (Merriam, 2009, p. 135).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Merriam, 2009 source
- Interpretationreasoning
Unless we dismiss autistic and carer voices reporting happiness and evidence that diminished autistic wellbeing can be explained by stigma, exclusion, and societal disablement, there is good reason to think the dominant view's tenet that autism and wellbeing are inherently at odds is itself a prejudice.
“Unless we dismiss not just the voices of those autistic individuals (and carers) who report being happy, but also the evidence indicating that diminished autistic wellbeing can be explained in reference to stigma, exclusion, and societal disablement, there's good reason to think that a tenet of the dominant view, that autism and wellbeing are inherently at odds, is itself a prejudice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Autistic people do tend to have low levels of wellbeing.
“Importantly, autism slightly differs from many cases of disability insofar as autistic people do tend to have low levels of wellbeing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The over-proliferation of neurotypical signposts may leave autistic people epistemically adrift in ways that contribute to counterproductive behaviors.
“The over-proliferation of neurotypical signposts may even leave autistic people”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jackson 2018 source
- Premisecitation
There are many instances of autistic persons, all along the spectrum, publicly stressing that they are fully capable of living good and happy lives.
“Beyond this, there are also many instances of autistic persons, all along the spectrum, publicly stressing that they are fully capable of living good and happy lives.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Aristotelian conceptions of flourishing have tended to exclude members of marginalized groups who may need to develop specific virtues such as defiance or anger to resist their unjust situation, leading to pathologisation of virtues made necessary by social context.
“On the one hand, Aristotleian conceptions of flourishing have tended to exclude members of marginalized groups who may need to develop specific virtues such as defiance or anger in order to resist their unjust situation, leading to the pathologisation of the very virtues made necessary by the social context (Potter, 2016;Tessman, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
The outcome Rodogno et al. point to can also be understood as a matter of epistemic injustice: typical conceptions of human flourishing, due to the intuitions they implicitly rely on, always already exclude neurodivergent modes of flourishing.
“Although their argument is more centrally about the underlying methodology, our contention is that the outcome they point to can also be understood as a matter of epistemic injustice: they indicate that our typical conceptions of human flourishing, due to the intuitions that such conceptions implicitly rely on, always already exclude neurodivergent modes of flourishing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
If an autistic person is not living a good life, their low quality of life is presumed to be caused by the autism even if they declare otherwise.
“and their low quality of life is presumed to be caused by the autism even if they declare otherwise.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Autistic individuals' declarations about their own quality of life should not be overridden by the presumption that autism causes their low quality of life.
- Interpretationreasoning
Baron-Cohen begs the question by presupposing that autism and suffering are intimately related.
“Rather, he begs the question by presupposing that they are intimately related.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Baron-Cohen, 2008 source
- Interpretationreasoning
Attempts to thrive by autistic individuals will be misled by neurotypical signposts, such as those focusing on high cognitive and reflective achievement or other species-specific characteristics like having a family, gaining societal recognition, or accessing mainstream culture.
“it also means that attempts to thrive by autistic individuals will be misled by neurotypical signposts, for example, those focusing on high cognitive and reflective achievement (e.g., Aristotle; cf.Carel, 2017) or other species-specific characteristics, such as having a family, gaining societal recognition, or accessing mainstream culture.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Carel, 2017 source
- Premisecitation
Specific disabilities are associated with low wellbeing if they are associated with high levels of stigma or greatly impaired functioning.
“However, as was noted above, specific disabilities are associated with low wellbeing if they are associated with high levels of stigma or greatly impaired functioning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Autistic thriving is harder to identify or understand.
“Not only does this mean that autistic thriving is harder to identify or understand”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
If a person who identifies as autistic and fulfills the diagnostic criteria is living a good life, they are denied recognition of their autism.
“if a person who identifies as autistic and who fulfills the diagnostic criteria is living a good life, they are denied recognition of their autism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Autistic individuals can live good lives and flourish.
- Interpretationreasoning
Such a lacuna can give rise to reduced levels of wellbeing as a result of a lack of an interpretative framework that can express the richness and diversity of autistic experience.
“Such lacuna can, although they do not necessarily, give rise to reduced levels of wellbeing as a result of a lack of an interpretative framework that can express the richness and diversity of autistic experience.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Associating species-normality with flourishing has been criticized as unduly restrictive.
“While it is highly plausible that what we are like will delineate what's good for us, associating species-normality with flourishing has been criticized as being unduly restrictive.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The situation identified will be harmful for autistic individuals.
“We can now see how the situation we have identified will be harmful for autistic individuals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Baron-Cohen does not establish a necessary or even dispositional causal link between autism and increased suffering in any of the forms he identifies.
“While Baron-Cohen purports here to simply be clarifying the harm aspect of mental disorder as traditionally conceived, he does not establish a necessary or even dispositional causal link between autism and increased suffering in any of the forms he identifies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Baron-Cohen, 2008 source
- Interpretationreasoning
These forms of injustice combine and interlock in practice.
“But it is also vital to consider how these forms of injustice combine and interlock in practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
If a person who identifies as autistic and fulfills the diagnostic criteria is not currently living a good life, they are recognized as autistic.
“If they are not currently living a good life, they are recognized as autistic”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Since the minds, interests, experiences, abilities, and needs of autistic people are different from those of non-autistic people, thriving also looks different in autistic people than in non-autistic people.
“As autistic scholar Nick Walker has proposed, since”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Walker, 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Once we accept that humanity is neurodiverse and that there are many different, yet equally legitimate, ways of functioning, it is not too far a step to consider that humanity will likely be similarly diverse in terms of routes to, and forms of, flourishing.
“In fact, once we accept that humanity is neurodiverse-which even critics of the neurodiversity movement concede is true to some extent (Jaarsma & Welin, 2012;Wakefield et al., 2020)and that there are many different, yet equally legitimate, ways of functioning, then it is not too far a step to consider that humanity will likely be similarly diverse in terms of routes to, and forms of, flourishing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Jaarsma & Welin, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Wakefield et al., 2020 source
- Rests on an assumption: There are many different, yet equally legitimate, ways of functioning within humanity.
- Interpretationreasoning
We do not need to give up on objectivist notions of flourishing as such.
“However, this does not mean we must give up on objectivist notions of flourishing as such.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The cost of this hermeneutical lacuna is borne by autistic persons seeking ways to express their wellbeing, comfort with being autistic, or another narrative that interprets autism as a form of neurodivergence.
“The cost for this hermeneutical lacuna is borne by autistic persons seeking ways to express their wellbeing, comfort with being autistic, or another narrative that interprets autism as a form of neurodivergence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The assumption that autistic unhappiness is natural and unavoidable itself triggers further sorrow and hardship.
“The assumption that autistic unhappiness is natural and unavoidable itself”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Objectivist conceptions of the good life that are based on the species norm are part of the problem.
“We established above that objectivist conception of the good life that are based on the species norm are part of the problem.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Epistemic injustice is implicated in lower levels of wellbeing, as it exacerbates and increases the silencing of minority groups suffering its effects.
“It is therefore important to note that epistemic injustice is implicated in lower levels of wellbeing, as it exacerbates and increases the silencing of minority groups suffering its effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Adhering to a species-standard model can lead to an inability to properly distinguish between inherently inhibited flourishing and societally disabled minority ways of being.
“Adhering to such a model can lead to an inability to properly distinguish between inherently inhibited flourishing on the one hand, and societally disabled minority ways of being on the other (ibid., pp.134-5)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Merriam, 2009 source
- Interpretationreasoning
Prejudiced stereotypes regarding autistic flourishing and wellbeing culminate in autistic individuals encountering a catch-22-like framing, whereby the possibility of being both autistic and living a good life is, to varying extents, unthinkable for many.
“In day-to-day life, prejudiced stereotypes regarding autistic flourishing and wellbeing culminate in autistic individuals encountering a”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Autistic individuals will find it harder to aim at autistic thriving than neurotypicals do, because such thriving is not (yet) 'on the map.'
“Just as a location that has been removed from all maps will be much harder to find, so too will autistic individuals find it harder to aim at autistic thriving than neurotypicals do, because such thriving is not (yet) “on the map.””
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Using comparisons across species as the core basis of how we understand human flourishing is likely not compatible with recognizing autistic and other neurodivergent forms of flourishing.
“We are not against comparisons across the species as such, but we do suggest that using this as the core basis of how we understand human flourishing is likely, not compatible with recognizing autistic and other neurodivergent forms of flourishing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Autistic voices have consistently argued that any impediment to autistic wellbeing and functioning is best understood in terms of social barriers, marginalization, stigma, and exclusion.
“With this in mind, it is vital to consider that how autistic voices have consistently argued that any impediment to autistic wellbeing and functioning is best understood in terms of social barriers, marginalization, stigma, and exclusion (Booth, 2016;Robertson, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Booth, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Robertson, 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Aristotelian accounts tend to be at odds with the natural variation in a given species.
“On the other, Aristotleian accounts tend to be at odds with the natural variation in a given species.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The diagnostic criteria for autism require evidence that the person is suffering in some way, such as being bullied, becoming depressed, having high anxiety, or not fulfilling academic or occupational potential.
“there has to be evidence that the person is “suffering” in some way (e.g., they are being bullied, or are becoming depressed, or have high levels of anxiety, or are not fulfilling their academic or occupational potential).(2008, p. 29)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Baron-Cohen, 2008 source
- Premisecitation
In recent years the concept of neurodiversity has been applied to other neuro-cognitive disabilities.
“in recent years the concept has been applied to other neuro-cognitive disabilities (Armstrong, 2010, Chapman, 2019a).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Armstrong, 2010
- cites Chapman, 2019a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Autistics often struggle to interpret the neurotypical social world.
“While it is true that autistics do often struggle to interpret the neurotypical social world”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2019b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Milton, 2012 source
- Premisecitation
Neurotypicals often display patronizing attitudes toward neurodivergent people.
“especially since neurotypicals often display patronizing attitudes toward neurodivergent people (Jackson, 2017)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jackson, 2017 source
- Interpretationreasoning
What neo-Aristotelian and Daniels-like views have in common is the focus on what is typical of a species, from which an account of normal function is built, against which atypical functioning would become abnormal.
“What those views have in common is the focus on what is typical of a species, from which an account of normal function is built, against which atypical functioning would become abnormal.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The requirement to fix individuals who fall outside the norm is reflected in the work of Norman Daniels.
“Beyond neo-Aristotelians, this requirement to fix individuals who fall outside the norm is also reflected in the work of Norman Daniels, who has been highly influential in theorizing healthcare justice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Daniels, 1981
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
The presupposition that suffering is a structural part of the evaluative process of autism produces a working version of the condition that has an assumed negativity and a normalized value judgment built into its medical/diagnostic baseline.
“the presupposition [that] suffering is a structural part of the evaluative process of autism produces a working version of the condition that has an assumed negativity and a normalized value judgment built into its medical/ diagnostic baseline”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Murray, 2012 source
- Premisecitation
Other philosophers who are not neo-Aristotelian, such as Peter Singer, have excluded cognitively disabled people from conceptions of the good human life on further grounds still.
“other philosophers who are not neo-Aristotelian, such as the utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer, have excluded cognitively disabled people from conceptions of the good human life on further grounds still.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Singer
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given
The conceptual commitments espoused by the medical deficit framing and the species-standard norm that it shares with species-norm-based conceptions of flourishing are a key part of the issue when it comes to autism.
“As we have highlighted, the very conceptual commitments espoused by the medical deficit framing and the species-standard norm that it shares with species-norm-based conceptions of flourishing, is a key part of the issue when it comes to autism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 30
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 44
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAutism is associated with poor mental health; many autistic persons experience clinical levels of anxiety and depression, and suicide rates are strikingly high.
“Relatedly, autism is associated with poor mental health.For instance, many autistic persons experience clinical levels of anxiety and depression (Stewart et al., 2006), and suicide rates are strikingly high (Hirvikoski et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationcitationRecognizing and supporting the emergence of autistic epistemic communities will be part of supporting autistic people to forge their own interpretation of their life and wellbeing.
“Part of this will surely come from recognizing and supporting the emergence of autistic epistemic communities, whereby autistics have been coming together to develop vocabularies, shared practices, and social norms that reflect autistic needs and preferences (Chapman, 2019b;Sinclair, 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2019b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Sinclair, 2010 source
In the Introduction (no page provided), Sinclair describes autistic people forming communities and developing social rules, customs, and ways of accommodating autistic needs. This supports the claim about shared practices and norms, but our copy does not establish that these communities developed shared vocabularies. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationcitationThe distinction between medicalization and pathologization separates harmful pathologization inherent to the medical deficit approach and social stigma and prejudice toward autistics from medicalization which enables individuals to receive a diagnosis and treatment, if they so wish.
“This distinction clearly separates the harmful pathologization that is inherent to the medical deficit approach and social stigma and prejudice toward autistics from the medicalization which enables individuals to receive a diagnosis and treatment, if they so wish.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Spencer & Carel, 2021 source
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
FindingcitationParalyzed accident victims are only somewhat less happy than lottery winners.
“Brickman et al. report that paralyzed accident victims are only somewhat less happy than lottery winners (1978).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brickman et al., 1978
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationIn general, results from comparative studies are meager and do not support the assumption that cancer or cancer treatment lead to a significantly lower quality of life.
“in general the results from comparative studies are meager and do not support the assumption that cancer or cancer treatment lead to a significantly lower quality of life”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites de Haes and van Knippenberg, 1985 source
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationHemodialysis patients and healthy controls both overestimated the impact of hemodialysis on wellbeing, and both groups reported a similar level of wellbeing.
“A study compared a group of hemodialysis patients with healthy controls and found that both groups overestimated the impact of hemodialysis on wellbeing.In fact, both groups reported a similar level of wellbeing (Riis et al., 2005, p. 6).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Riis et al., 2005 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenOn the medical model, impairment is the primary cause of disability and the harm taken to stem from it.
“On the medical model, impairment is the primary cause of disability and also the harm that is taken to stem from it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationOn models used by neurodiversity proponents, at least a significant part of disablement is societally caused or the product of complex interactions between individual and society.
“By contrast, on models used by neurodiversity proponents, at least a significant part of disablement is societally caused (Oliver, 1990) or the product of complex interactions between individual and society (Shakespeare, 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Oliver, 1990 source
- cites Shakespeare, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThese stereotypes overlook the large diversity within autism and may attribute credibility deficits to autistic individuals who do not have these putative traits.
“These stereotypes overlook the large diversity within autism and therefore may attribute credibility deficits to autistic individuals who in fact do not have these putative traits.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningEpistemic injustice may block our ability to conceive of a good autistic life and to recognize the testimonies of happy autistics as such, despite good reason to think autistic thriving is viable.
“It may also-despite there being good reason to think that autistic thriving is viable-block our ability to conceive of a good autistic life, as well as to recognize the testimonies of happy autistics as such.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe catch-22 denies recognition to happy autistics and severely diminishes the actual chances of autistic flourishing.
“This is practically important since it does not just deny recognition to happy autistics-it also means that the actual chances of autistic flourishing are severely diminished, much as any destination will be harder to find if it has not been included on the map.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationNeurodiversity proponents have suggested the neurodiversity paradigm as an alternative to the dominant medicalized framing of psychiatric and cognitive disabilities.
“Neurodiversity proponents (Chapman, 2019a;Walker, 2012) have suggested the neurodiversity paradigm as an alternative to the dominant medicalized framing of psychiatric and cognitive disabilities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2019a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Walker, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe neurodiversity conception recasts autism as a minority neurocognitive type that is primarily disabled and devalued under current social conditions, instead of a medical pathology.
“This recasts autism as a minority neurocognitive type that is primarily disabled and devalued under current social conditions, instead of it being a medical pathology (Chapman, 2019a;Singer, 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2019a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Singer, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationVarieties of the social/relational framing allow us to see neurodivergences as neurominorities that are not inherently harmful rather than manifestations of harmful dysfunctions.
“Varieties of this framing, which has been argued for in detail in the existing literature (see, e.g., Chapman, 2019bChapman, , 2020;;Robertson, 2010), allows us to see such divergences as”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2019b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Chapman, 2020 source
- cites Robertson, 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationDisability is assumed to be incompatible with living good or happy lives.
“This follows a typical set of stereotypes widely held about disabled persons, whereby disability is assumed to be incompatible with living good or happy lives (Barnes, 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Barnes, 2016 source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe stereotype that autistic people are mindblind is still systematically used to dismiss the validity of autistic voices, although the theory has been shown untenable and rooted in prejudice.
“Although this theory has been shown to be untenable (Chapman, 2019b) and rooted in prejudice (Yergeau & Huebner, 2017), it is still systematically used to dismiss the validity of autistic voices (Yergeau, 2018).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2019b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Yergeau & Huebner, 2017 source
- cites Yergeau, 2018
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone givenOn the medical deficit view, autism is widely taken to be at odds, to varying extents, with living a good human life.
“On the medical deficit view autism is also widely taken to be at odds (to varying extents depending on the specifics of the diagnosis) with living a good human life.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenAutism is widely taken to be at odds, to varying extents, with both wellbeing and flourishing, and hence incompatible with both objective and subjective conceptions of the good life.
“As we discuss below, autism is widely taken to be at odds-to varying extents-with both wellbeing and flourishing, and hence incompatible with both objective and subjective conceptions of the good life.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone givenOn the medical deficit view, autism is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder, indicating a harmful developmental trajectory that stems from underlying neurological dysfunction.
“On what we call the medical deficit view, autism is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder, indicating that it is a harmful developmental trajectory that stems from underlying neurological dysfunction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe empirical literature associates autism with poor outcomes and low wellbeing.
“On the face of it, this may seem supported by the empirical literature, in which autism is associated with poor outcomes (Howlin, 2000) and low wellbeing (Renty & Roeyers, 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone givenThere is a stereotype that autism and happiness are inherently at odds.
“This relates specifically to the stereotype that autism and happiness are inherently at odds.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThis credibility deficit can be broadly characterized as pathocentric testimonial injustice that operates broadly and pervasively, in tandem with relevant tracker prejudices.
“This can be broadly characterized as pathocentric testimonial injustice (Kidd & Carel, 2018) that operates broadly and pervasively, in tandem with the relevant tracker prejudices.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kidd & Carel, 2018 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningNeurodiversity challenges us to radically broaden our conceptions of the good human life.
“our argument will serve the further purpose of showing that neurodiversity also challenges us to radically broaden our conceptions of the good human life.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationOn the medicalized framing, there is a relatively restricted species-standard norm in mental functioning; if an individual falls outside it and is distressed or disabled to a clinically significant level, they are taken to have a mental disorder.
“On the medicalized framing, there's a relatively restricted species-standard norm in terms of mental functioning (Boorse, 1975): if an individual falls outside of this norm and is also distressed or disabled to a”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Boorse, 1975
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites APA, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenAutistic voices are more likely to be dismissed when they offer a variety of kinds of testimonies, especially testimonies about autistic wellbeing or happiness.
“While this will mean that autistic voices are more likely to be dismissed when they offer a variety of kinds of testimonies, here we want to focus on testimonies about autistic wellbeing or happiness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMoral philosophers have often taken autism to be inherently at odds with living a good life.
“Underlying these empirical findings, moral philosophers have often taken autism to be inherently at odds with living a good life (Barnbaum, 2008;Furman & Tuminello, 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSocial or relational models reframe neurodivergent disablement and distress as, at least in significant part, the product of social exclusion, marginalization, and oppression.
“These reframe neurodivergent disablement and distress as, at least in significant part, the product of social exclusion, marginalization, and oppression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe neurodiversity paradigm takes neuro-cognitive diversity itself to be the norm and posits such diversity as desirable and valuable for humanity as such.
“By contrast, the neurodiversity paradigm takes neuro-cognitive diversity itself to be the norm and posits such diversity as desirable and valuable for humanity (or any human group) as such (Chapman, 2021;Singer, 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chapman, 2021 source
- cites Singer, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningNeurodiversity proponents aim to de-pathologize autism and politicize neurodivergent disablement and distress, challenging the notion that at least some forms of neurodivergence are inherently harmful and dysfunctional.
“Neurodiversity proponents aim to de-pathologize autism and instead politicize neurodivergent disablement and distress, and in doing so mount a challenge to the notion that at least some forms of neurodivergence are inherently harmful and dysfunctional.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThis coheres with the neo-Aristotelian notion that what is good for us depends on what we are like, but acknowledges that autistic people are different from non-autistic people and hence autistic thriving will not look like non-autistic thriving even if both are members of the same species.
“This coheres with the neo-Aristotelian notion that what is good for us will depend on what we are like, but also acknowledges that autistic people are different from non-autistic people-and hence that autistic thriving will not look like non-autistic thriving even if both are members of the same species.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningOn the interpretation that an autistic account means the person is not autistic, if that person is happy and articulating clearly their happiness, then their eloquence, rich use of language, and happiness mean that the speaker is not 'really autistic.'
“On the latter interpretation, if that person is happy and articulating clearly their happiness, then the eloquence and rich use of language and their happiness mean that that speaker is not “really autistic.””
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAlthough wellbeing is currently low among the autistic population, evidence points toward this being a result of stigma and societal disablement rather than inherent to being autistic.
“For although it is true that wellbeing is currently low among the autistic population, evidence points toward this being a result of stigma and societal disablement rather than inherent to being autistic.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningEpistemic injustice not only prevents the expression of wellness but also impacts upon that wellness itself.
“Thus it not only prevents the expression of wellness but also impacts upon that wellness itself.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone givenThe catch-22 bifurcation emerges from interlocking biases that go from everyday assumptions, through psychiatric theory and practice, reaching into ancient conceptions of the good human life.
“Our aim here has been to identify and clarify how this catch-22 bifurcation emerges from interlocking biases that go all the way from everyday assumptions, through psychiatric theory and practice, reaching into ancient conceptions of the good human life.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningInterlocking epistemic injustices mean that autistic accounts are taken to mean either that the person is not happy or that they are not autistic.
“Interlocking epistemic injustices mean that autistic accounts are taken to mean either that the person is not happy or that they are not autistic.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningOn the interpretation that an autistic account means the person is not happy, the statement 'I am autistic and I am flourishing' is not intelligible; it is not possible to be both.
“On the former interpretation, “I am autistic and I am flourishing” is not intelligible; it is not possible to be both.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenBoth components of this dynamic are reflected not just in everyday responses to autism; they are also embedded in clinical practice.
“Importantly, both components of this dynamic are reflected not just in everyday responses to autism; they are also embedded in clinical practice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe diagnostic construction of autism makes the very concept of autism at odds with thriving, so that one can only be recognized as autistic if one's life is not going well.
“More specifically, it constructs autism so that the very concept is at odds with thriving: you can only be recognized as autistic if your life is not going well.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationSome manifestations of autism can make life inherently harder in important respects, but life being hard is not the same as it being at odds with happiness as such.
“In saying this, we do not mean to deny that some manifestations of autism can make life inherently harder in important respects; only that life being hard is not the same as it is at odds with happiness as such (Booth, 2016, Chapman, 2020;Carel, 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIf the neurodiversity perspective is seriously entertained or convincing to an extent, then, given the diversity of preferences that comes with a neurologically diverse species, we should expect a plurality of ways of flourishing within the human species, many diverging from species-standard thriving, and some rendered invisible due to overly restricted conceptions of human flourishing.
“If the neurodiversity perspective is seriously entertained or is convincing to an extent, then, given the diversity of preferences that comes with a neurologically diverse species, we should expect there to be a plurality of ways of flourishing within the human species, many of which diverge from species-standard thriving, and some of which may be rendered invisible due to overly restricted concep”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: There are many different, yet equally legitimate, ways of functioning within humanity.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAutistic individuals encounter testimonial injustice when they claim to be happy or living good lives, and hermeneutical injustice in the exclusion of neurodivergent modes of flourishing.
“We've suggested that autistic individuals encounter testimonial injustice, when they claim to be happy or living good lives, and hermeneutical injustice, seen in the exclusion of neurodivergent modes of flourishing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationcitationVirtues should be understood as shared but relative to the individual rather than the species.
“This allows us to understand virtues as shared but importantly relative to the individual rather than the species.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Carel, 2017 source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationIf autistic individuals are not happy or flourishing, then not only is the autism recognized, but the suffering is automatically taken to stem from the autism.
“On the other hand, if they are autistic and not happy or flourishing, then not only is the autism recognized, but the suffering is automatically taken to stem from the autism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe issue arises from a hermeneutical lacuna, not testimonial injustice, for it stops us from being able to envision minority modes of flourishing, despite reason to think such modes exist.
“This time, however, the issue arises from a hermeneutical lacuna, not testimonial injustice, for it stops us from being able to envision minority modes of flourishing, despite, as we have seen, there being reason to think that such modes of flourishing exist.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe development of new post-medicalized vocabularies will be necessary for further articulating an accurate and nuanced understanding of autistic forms of flourishing.
“the development of new post-medicalized vocabularies will be necessary for further articulating an accurate and nuanced understanding of autistic forms of flourishing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMerriam (2009) has proposed turning away from Aristotle and toward stoic philosophy, to shift focus onto how well individuals do given their specific limitations instead of measuring them against the species-standard norm.
“Merriam (2009) has proposed turning away from Aristotle and toward stoic philosophy, to shift the focus onto how well individuals do give their specific limitations instead of measuring them against the species-standard norm.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Merriam, 2009 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningIt is feasible that similar dynamics may also emerge for other neuro-cognitive disabilities.
“Given this, it is also feasible that similar dynamics may also emerge for other neuro-cognitive disabilities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningOur analysis gives good reason to ask whether similar dynamics are also at play in other cases.
“our analysis does give good reason to ask whether similar dynamics are also at play in other cases.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCarel (2012) developed a phenomenological toolkit meant for use in a healthcare context, to support patients to cultivate new existential relationships to and understandings of their condition, bracketed off from purely medical meanings.
“Carel (2012) developed a phenomenological toolkit meant for use in a healthcare context, to support patients to cultivate new existential relationships to and understandings of their condition, which are bracketed off from purely medical meanings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Carel, 2012 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationFor Baron-Cohen, the issue is one of autism causing the person to suffer.
“For Baron-Cohen, the issue is one of autism “causing [them] to suffer” (2008, p. 11).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Baron-Cohen, 2008 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMilton (2014b) draws on phenomenology to critique the normalization of autistic 'dispositional diversity.'
“Milton (2014b) draws on phenomenology to critique the normalization of autistic “dispositional diversity.””
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Milton, 2014b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenOther neuro-cognitive disabilities are also routinely framed via the species-norm.
“For other neuro-cognitive disabilities are also routinely framed via the species-norm.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningUpdating our theories of the good life to reflect the neurodiversity paradigm may be as important as neurodiversity proponents take updating models of disability to be.
“Updating our theories of the good life to reflect the neurodiversity paradigm may therefore be as important as neurodiversity proponents take updating models of disability is, in light of such a paradigm shift.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe concept of neurodiversity is not supposed to be autism-specific.
“the concept itself is not supposed to be autism-specific”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Armstrong, 2010
- cites Chapman, 2019a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIf autistic distress is extraneous and the result of social conditions under which autistic persons live, it may be that instead of adapting to their condition, autistic persons need to adapt to the barriers, prejudices, and stigma they face throughout their lives as 'tracker obstacles.'
“If autistic distress is extraneous and the result of social conditions under which autistic persons live, it may be that instead of adapting to their condition, autistic persons need to adapt to the barriers, prejudices, and stigma they face throughout their lives as “tracker obstacles,” that track them in education, health, employment, housing, and so on.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationPantazakos (2019) develops the concept of the autistic 'life-world' as expressing a different structure to the neurotypical life-world in order to critique medicalized, behavioral understandings.
“Pantazakos (2019) develops the concept of the autistic “life-world” as expressing a different structure to the neurotypical life-world in order to critique medicalized, behavioral understandings”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pantazakos, 2019 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisereasoningDisabled people also face similar forms of discrimination and epistemic injustice.
“Disabled people also face similar forms of discrimination and epistemic injustice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAnita Ho (2011) uses the term 'catch 22' to describe a different situation, in which disabled people put themselves at risk if they do not trust their physician, but equally so if they do, since physicians can be epistemically overconfident and hence make harmful decisions.
“Anita Ho (2011) uses the term “catch 22” to describe a different situation, in which disabled people put themselves at risk if they do not trust their physician, but equally so if they do, since physicians can be epistemically overconfident and hence make harmful decisions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ho, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationWardrope (2015) claims that impaired or ill persons acknowledge the utility of medical framings and find instrumental value in treatments, but resist the idea that the biomedical model says all there is to say about their conditions and identities.
“Wardrope's (2015) claim that impaired or ill persons do “acknowledge the utility of medical framings and find a certain instrumental value in the treatments consequently made available, but resist in varying fashions the idea that the biomedical model says all that there is to say about their conditions and identities””
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wardrope, 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationCarel (2017) has stressed the need to relativize our understanding of the virtues in light of individual cognitive limitations.
“Carel (2017), who in discussion of the neurodevelopmental disorder fetal alcohol spectrum disorder has stressed the need to relativize our understanding of the virtues in light of individual cognitive limitations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Carel, 2017 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningNeurodivergent people must adapt to an environment not built for them rather than having to adapt to diminished health.
“If so, neurodivergent people must adapt to an environment not built for them rather than having to adapt to diminished health.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningOur analysis may bear significance more widely, beyond the case of autism.
“In closing, we suggest that our analysis may bear significance more widely, beyond the case of autism.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningCultivating epistemic humility among the broader neurotypical public would help establish epistemic justice.
“cultivating epistemic humility among the broader neurotypical public would help establish epistemic justice too.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The neurodiversity framing can be applied to the autism spectrum to some extent at least.
“For the purposes of this article, we will suppose that the neurodiversity framing can be applied to the autism spectrum to some extent at least, as even critics of the broader application of the neurodiversity framing admit (e.g., Jaarsma & Welin, 2012;Wakefield et al., 2020).”
The paper relies on this without support.
There are many different, yet equally legitimate, ways of functioning within humanity.
“and that there are many different, yet equally legitimate, ways of functioning”
The paper relies on this without support.
Autistic individuals can live good lives and flourish.
“if a person who identifies as autistic and who fulfills the diagnostic criteria is living a good life”
The paper relies on this without support.
Autistic individuals' declarations about their own quality of life should not be overridden by the presumption that autism causes their low quality of life.
“even if they declare otherwise”
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Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing
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Lottery winners and accident victims: is happiness relative?
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Epistemic injustice in psychiatric research and practice
Kidd, I. J., Spencer, L. J., & Carel, H. (2022) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2022.2156333 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Jackson argues that addressing the epistemic injus-tices experienced by the neurodivergent will require new conceptions of empathy (see also Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
Self-citationShaw, S. C. K., Carravallah, L. A., Johnson, M. M., O’Sullivan, J., Chown, N., Neilson, S., & Doherty, M. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231205629 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“Epistemic injustice can be defined as ‘harms that relate specifically to our status as epistemic agents, whereby our status as knowers, interpreters, and providers of information, is unduly diminished or stifled in a way that under-mines the agent’s agency and dignity’ (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
BackgroundPearson, A., Rose, K., & Rees, J. C. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221104546 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“…of the participants reported that the perpetrator was not aware that they were autistic, and most people were not sure whether the perpetrator was also neurodivergent (we use the same definition as Chapman and Carel (2022) to include cognitive, neurodevelopmental and psychosocial disabilities).”
MethodIs neurodiversity a Global Northern White paradigm?
Nair, V. K., Farah, W., & Boveda, M. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613241280835 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Moreover, our espoused ideologies and the arguments presented in this article are firmly rooted in the contemporary neurodiversity scholarship (e.g. Bottema-Beutel et al., 2021; Chapman & Carel, 2022; Fletcher-Watson, 2022; Milton, 2020; Pellicano & den Houting, 2022).”
Neurodivergence, intersectionality, and eating disorders: a lived experience-led narrative review
Cobbaert, L., Millichamp, A., Elwyn, R., Silverstein, S., Schweizer, K., Thomas, E., & Miskovic‐Wheatley, J. (2024) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-024-01126-5 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Applied Behavior Analysis and the Abolitionist Neurodiversity Critique: An Ethical Analysis
Graber, A. D., & Graber, J. (2023) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-023-00780-6 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…of the neurodiversity perspective are likely to criticize treating neurotypical behavior as the benchmark for success: “[ABA] does not help the autistic person in question, it only makes the autistic person more ‘acceptable’ to others” (Schuck et al., 2022a, p. 12; see also, Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
BackgroundPantazakos, T., & Vanaken, G.-J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1225152 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“In line with these findings, neurodiversity scholars have often made the point that thriving and wellbeing are not necessarily at odds with being autistic, and that ‘a flourishing autistic life’ is not a contradiction in terms (Chapman and Carel, 2022).”
BackgroundFrom Puzzle to Progress: How Engaging With Neurodiversity Can Improve Cognitive Science
Manalili, M. A. R., Pearson, A., Sulik, J., Creechan, L., Elsherif, M. M., Murkumbi, I., Azevedo, F., Bonnen, K., Kim, J. S., Kording, K. P., et al. (2023) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13255 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“…in favor of social models*, which locate disability in the relationship between a person and their environment rather than being inherent to the person alone (Betts et al., in press; Chapman & Carel, 2022; Creechan, 2022; Kapp, 2013; Milton, 2012; Oliver, 1983, 2013; Stenning & Rosqvist, 2021).”
BackgroundBlack, M. H., Helander, J., Segers, J., Ingard, C., Bervoets, J., de Puget, V. G., & Bölte, S. (2024) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102487 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Outside of normative standards, qualitative research has high-lighted that many neurodivergent individuals may live fulfilling and meaningful lives according to their own subjectively determined standards (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
BackgroundThe experiences of autistic medical students: A phenomenological study
Shaw, S. C. K., Doherty, M., & Anderson, J. L. (2023) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.15119 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“tains an epistemic injustice, whereby autistic voices remain unheard in academic circles or are presented through a non-autistic filter.(47) Such social justice and autonomy issues are already well-embedded within psychiatric research, for example.”
BackgroundFusar‐Poli, P., Estradé, A., Esposito, C. M., Rosfort, R., Basadonne, I., Mancini, M., Stanghellini, G., Otaiku, J., Olanrele, O., Allen, L., et al. (2024) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21189 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Indeed, neurodivergent young people are often unfairly harmed as a social minority 157 : their story is frequently disvalued, silenced, ignored, distorted or misrepresented 158 .”
BackgroundKenny, N., Doyle, A., & Horgan, F. (2023) · International Journal of Qualitative Methods · doi:10.1177/16094069221146992 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“This has given rise to concerns regarding the potential for epistemic injustice (Chapman & Carel, 2022; Fricker, 2007) in the production of knowledge or development of theory within disability research.”
BackgroundWhat’s in a name? The costs and benefits of a formal autism diagnosis
Fletcher‐Watson, S. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231213300 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“While guidance now recognises that difficulties may be masked or effortfully and superficially overcome, it remains an epistemic injustice at the heart of autism diagnosis, that to be autistic and thriving is conceptually impossible (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
BackgroundBody social models of disability: Examining enactive and ecological approaches
Jurgens, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1128772 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Le, N., Belay, Y. B., Le, L. K., Pirkis, J., & Mihalopoulos, C. (2023) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674231165477 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Those individuals presented a poor HRQoL outcome as a result of limitations on several aspects of functioning but valued their life highly and profoundly, and were genuinely happy (Chapman and Carel, 2022; Guyatt, 1997).”
Backgroundde Carvalho, F. N., & Krueger, J. W. (2023) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2023.2237065 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“This medical deficit model portrays autism as a harmful developmental trajectory stemming from underlying neurological dysfunction (Chapman & Carel, 2021; see also Kidd & Carel, 2018).”
Cage, E., Botha, M., McDevitt, L., King, K. N., Biscoe, L., Tucker, K., & Pearson, A. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231220418 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“…to employ an adapted participatory photovoice method (which we will refer to as photovoice for brevity) because autistic people are often subjected to testimonial and epistemic injustice (Chapman & Carel, 2022), whereby their life narratives, testimony and expertise are both side-lined and erased.”
‘We have so much to offer’: Community members’ perspectives on autism research
Haar, T., Brownlow, C., Hall, G., Heyworth, M., Lawson, W. B., Poulsen, R. E., Reinisch, T., & Pellicano, E. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613241248713 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…2017; Kapp, 2023; Milton & Bracher, 2013; Natri et al., 2023); a new emphasis on services and supports that enable Autistic flourishing (Chapman & Carel, 2022; Ne’eman, 2021; Pellicano & Heyworth, 2023); a new set of research priorities stressing issues of immediate and everyday…”
McGreevy, E., Quinn, A., Law, R., Botha, M., Evans, M., Rose, K., Moyse, R., Boyens, T., Matejko, M., & Pavlopoulou, G. (2024) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/00221678241232442 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“This now paves the way for creating a society where autistic people flourish (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
BackgroundSchuck, R. K., & Fung, L. K. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1250895 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Chapman and Carel (18) argue that stigma toward neurodivergent people has led to society discrediting, disenfranchising, and excluding them from what society considers a “good life.”
BackgroundAccess Points: Understanding Special Interests Through Autistic Narratives
Long, R.-E. M. (2024) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2023.0157 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Problems for enactive psychiatry as a practical framework
Russell, J. L. (2023) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2023.2174423 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Chapman and Carel (2022) make a compelling case for how experiences of autism are shaped by preconcep-tions that individuals with autism suffer.”
BackgroundLegault, M., Catala, A., & Poirier, P. (2024) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-024-04730-9 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“This “neurotypical ignorance” (Catala et al., 2021; Chapman & Carel, 2022, p. 13), to borrow Mills’s words, “unashamedly presents itself as knowledge” (Mills, 2007, p. 19).”
A qualitative interview study on quality of life and ageing experiences of autistic adults
Viner, H. E., Yuill, N., Costa, A. P., Radford, H., & Kornadt, A. E. (2024) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-024-00142-0 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“It recognises autism as a ‘ natural and valuable formofhumandiversity ’ 15 andinlinewiththe socialmodelofdisability 16 , highlights how existing societal structures can be disabling 17,18 and limit autistic fl ourishing 19 .”
Recovery-oriented psychiatry: oxymoron or catalyst for change?
Speyer, H., Roe, D., & Slade, M. (2025) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(25)00092-6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Pearson, A., & Hodgetts, S. (2023) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2022.0103 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“36 It was important to the authors that this study did not perpetuate harmful stereotypes about autistic desire (e.g., labeling intimate interests as paraphilic), objectify autistic people, or stigmatize people who engage in BDSM/kink (neurodivergent or otherwise).”
Neurodiversity and psychotherapy—Connections and ways forward
Pantazakos, T. (2023) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12675 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
McDowall, A., Doyle, N., & Kiseleva, M. (2025) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.22307 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Epistemic injustice in experiences of young people with parents with mental health challenges
Yates, S., Gladstone, B., Foster, K., Hagström, A. S., Reupert, A., O’Dea, L., Cuff, R., McGaw, V. E., & Hine, R. H. (2023) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/1467-9566.13730 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…of marginalised groups, and manifests in the diminishment or undermining of the status of individuals or groups as epistemic agents (Fricker, 2017)—their capacity to act and to be accepted by others as ‘knowers, interpreters and providers of information’ (Chapman & Carel, 2022, p. 1).”
BackgroundOpening up autism research: Bringing open research methods to our field
Hobson, H., Poole, D., Pearson, A., & Fletcher‐Watson, S. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221105385 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hine, R. H., Gladstone, B., Reupert, A., O’Dea, L., Cuff, R., Yates, S., Hagström, A. S., McGaw, V. E., & Foster, K. (2023) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/10497323231211454 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…complex, intersecting operations of stigma across various facets of people ’ s identities and statuses tend to undermine the capability of those stigmatised, to name and narrate their experiences, and to have these recognised in interactions with relatively powerful others (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
BackgroundDecolonizing autism research: Integrating Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing
Bruno, G., Lindblom, A., Tupou, J., Kewene, F., Waisman, T., & Magiati, I. (2025) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613251382398 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Conventional autism research has long been rooted in approaches and frameworks that pathologize Autistic people, rather than emphasize their strengths and lived experiences (Chapman & Carel, 2022; Dinishak, 2022).”
Vanaken, G., Noens, I. L. J., Steyaert, J. G., van Esch, L., Warreyn, P., & Hens, K. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-023-06139-8 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Downs, J. L., & Adams, M. (2025) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-025-01271-5 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Fisher, E., MacLennan, K., Mullally, S. L., Rodgers, J., & Tzemou, E. (2025) · Neurodiversity · doi:10.1177/27546330251385325 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Most concerningly, understanding school anxiety in isolation risks reinforcing essentialist narratives that frame it as a fi xed ‘ de fi cit ’ or ‘ weakness ’ of Neurodivergence (Boyle, 2011; Chapman & Carel, 2022; McKinlay et al., 2024).”
Fox, J. (2024) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2023.0100 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“2 However, the conceptualization of functional ability is underpinned by normative standards and often disregards the complexity of sociocultural context in relation to impairment.”
Integrating autistic perspectives into autism science: A role for autistic autobiographies
Dinishak, J., & Akhtar, N. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221123731 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Indeed, interventions often presuppose concepts of well-being modeled on non-autistic experience, but these concepts may not provide good guidance on what constitutes autistic flourishing (Chapman & Carel, 2022; Rodogno et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBetts, K., Creechan, L., Cawkwell, R., et al. (2022) · Social Inclusion · doi:10.17645/si.v11i1.5737 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“By cultivating a space to share these narratives, we have established a community of care through which we can begin to tackle epistemic injustice (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
Co-opting the “neuro” in neurodiversity and the complexities of epistemic injustice
Russell, G., & Wilkinson, S. (2023) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2023.09.002 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Roberts, J. (2023) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2023_lshss-23-00037 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The role of clinicians in the looping effect: epistemic injustices and looping breaks
Gauld, C., Nicolle, B., Constant, A., & Gagné‐Julien, A. (2025) · Medicine Health Care and Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s11019-025-10279-2 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…may have to use incomplete or problematic hermeneutic resources to be able to communicate their experience to others, such as pejorative terminology found in official nosography (Bueter 2019) or inadequate frameworks to understand distress or difference (Chapman and Carel 2022; Gagné-Julien 2022).”
A critical reflection on definitions of autistic well‐being
Deakin, M., Petty, S., Heasman, B., & Hamilton, L. (2024) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.3572 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Countering essentialism in psychiatric narratives
Broeker, M. D., & Arnaud, S. (2024) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2024.2407502 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The absence of a narrative that supports a fulfilling life may leave autistic people epistemically adrift, unable to fully comprehend and navigate their experiences (Chapman & Carel, 2022), which highlights the importance of suitable narratives.”
Autistic SPACE(S) in Social Work
Guthrie, J., Doherty, M., Shaw, S. C. K., O'Reilly, M., Chinnéide, E. N., & Archard, P. (2024) · Practice · doi:10.1080/09503153.2024.2423405 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Algorithmic emergence? Epistemic in/justice in AI-directed transformations of healthcare
Emah, I., & Bennett, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2025.1520810 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Wassell, E. (2025) · Disability & Society · doi:10.1080/09687599.2025.2498417 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The conditions of epistemic injustice noted by Chapman and Carel (2022) suggests that urgent community research is needed into autistic flourishing, and i assessed that there was an ethical imperative to conduct the study.”
InfluentialBeyond Diagnosis: Setting Research Priorities with the Neurodivergent Community
Ostaszewska, A., Harper, G., Davis, R., & Joseph, H. S. S. L. (2025) · Neurodiversity · doi:10.1177/27546330251374236 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“A signi fi cant contributor to stigma is the de fi cit-based criteria embedded in neurodevelopmental diagnostic criteria, which pathologise neurodivergence (Bottema-Beutel et al., 2021; Chapman & Carel, 2022; Pellicano & den Houting, 2022).”
Speaking with Us, Not for Us: Neurodiversity, Theology and Justice
Jacobs, N. L. (2023) · Journal of Disability & Religion · doi:10.1080/23312521.2023.2249448 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“And because our own voices are not heard in most research, research rarely asks how we can be given the opportunity to live up to our potential as neurodivergent people (Chapman & Carel, 2022, p. 2).”
BackgroundInfluentialAutistic adults’ experiences of managing wellbeing and implications for social prescribing
Featherstone, C., Sharpe, R. A., Axford, N., Asthana, S., & Husk, K. (2023) · Disability & Society · doi:10.1080/09687599.2023.2263628 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The study demonstrated that a positive sense of wellbeing can be achievable for autistic people, a perspective that has sometimes been obscured by mainstream research narratives (Chapman and Carel 2022).”
BackgroundSilvester, S.-J. E., & Rankine, R. (2024) · Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools · doi:10.1177/20556365241267050 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Chapman and Carel (2022) highlight the impact of dismissing the merit within neurodiver-gent voices upon their wellbeing and self-actualisation.”
An Introduction to Research Methods and Ethics in Neurodiversity Studies
Jackson‐Perry, D., & Rosqvist, H. B. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-66127-3_1 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Menstruation and Autism: A Qualitative Systematic Review
Ellis, R., Williams, G., Caemawr, S., Craine, M., Holloway, W., Williams, K., Shaw, S. C. K., & Grant, A. (2025) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2024.0307 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In doing so, they reinforced the neuro-typical body mind as the “ norm, ” 62 and sometimes displayed frustration at these differences.”
Hedlund, Å., Wester, M. E., Edenvik, P., Ingard, C., Isakson, K., Sabel, L. K., Unéus, D., Lindström, T., Black, M. H., & Rosqvist, H. B. (2025) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2025.1611803 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Following Chapman and Carel (2022), hermeneutic injustice can contribute to the neurotypical world missing essential knowledge that autistic people have inside but have not formulated together.”
InfluentialWhat is autism? Identity in jeopardy and the collaborative way ahead
Alexandrovsky, M., Frayne, M., & Lai, M. (2025) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613251371485 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“As in the clinical realm, this co-production cultivates scientifically robust questions to be asked in inclusive and ethical ways (Chapman & Carel, 2022), and research constructs to be defined as validly, coherently, and meaningfully as possible (Nicolaidis et al., 2025).”
Bolton, M. J. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q2t8h · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Central Sensitivity Symptoms and Autistic Traits in Autistic and Non‐Autistic Adults
Grant, S., Norton, S., & Hoekstra, R. A. (2025) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3297 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…a broad range of chronic illness and disease (Croen et al. 2015; Rydzewska et al. 2019; Ward et al. 2023; Weir et al. 2021; Williams and Gotham 2022), and that there are also significant barriers to healthcare for autistic people (Doherty et al. 2022; Nicolaidis et al. 2015; Shaw et al. 2024 2020).”
Epistemic humility meets virtual reality: teaching an old ideal with novel tools
Starke, G., Sobieska, A., Knochel, K., & Buyx, A. (2025) · Journal of Medical Ethics · doi:10.1136/jme-2024-110591 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“9 A separate body of literature has also investigated epistemic humility with a view to the limitations of medical knowledge, looking at the epistemic limitations of physicians and the ensuing ethical obligations 10 as well as critically discussing epistemic humility in the context”
May, J. (2025) · Neuroethics · doi:10.1007/s12152-025-09603-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Epistemic injustice and psychotherapy
Drożdżowicz, A., & Grodniewicz, J. P. (2025) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2025.2519320 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“To the extent that this conceptual resource is developed and used in the community of the marginalized group (see Chapman & Carel, 2022), having her contribution ignored by Tony would constitute a case of contributory injustice.”
Tōjisha‐Kenkyū on Autism in Japan: Against Epistemic Injustices and Tokenism
Ayaya, S. (2025) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.70026 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Risk and resilience in developmental diversity: Protocol of developing ICF core sets
Black, M. H., Goidsenhoven, L. V., Hens, K., Bourgeron, T., & Bölte, S. (2023) · Neurodiversity · doi:10.1177/27546330231190235 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“While less explored, others have highlighted that neurodivergent individuals can achieve a “ good life ” according to subjectively determined criteria (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
BackgroundProblems for enactive psychiatry? Mindshaping, social normativity, and neurodiversity
Maiese, M. L. (2024) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2024.2446631 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…associated with autism as dysfunctional and pathological, enactive psychiatry may contribute to epistemic injustice against disabled persons (Chapman & Carel, 2022), e.g., in cases where their testimony about their own flourishing does not receive uptake within medical, clinical, and…”
InfluentialGibbs, A. (2022) · Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work · doi:10.11157/anzswj-vol34iss4id977 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Billington, J., Knott, F. J., & Craythorne, S. (2025) · International Journal of Qualitative Methods · doi:10.1177/16094069251346839 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
O’Laughlin, C. (2025) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1080/00221546.2025.2557155 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Jacobsen, K. (2025) · International Journal of Transgender Health · doi:10.1080/26895269.2025.2566190 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Inclusion by design a-neuro-cognitive trait interaction approach-to neurodivergent research
Dark, J. (2025) · Methodological Innovations · doi:10.1177/20597991251396144 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“It calls for researchers to recognise all people as credible in the knowledge held about themselves and to avoid misconceptions drawn from medicalised views, which can silence or distort marginalised voices (Chapman and Carel, 2022).”
Longhurst, P., Woodworth, E. C., Cunha, I. C. K. O., & Rodgers, R. F. (2024) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101801 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Scaffolded Agents, for Better or Worse: Assessing the Formative Aspect of Scaffolding
Dengsø, M. J. (2025) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10148-2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Is the pathologization of certain developmental conditions conducive to such individuals’ welfare or simply to their stigma-tization and medicalization (Rosqvist et al. 2020; Chapman & Carel 2022; Maiese 2022b)?”
Glaser, N. J., Calyam, P. P., Duan, Y., Li, S. E., Nuguri, S. S., Ousley, C., Kambhampati, A., Parishani, Z., Joshi, A. C., & Yang, M. (2025) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-80475-5_19 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
de Prado‐Gordillo, M. N. (2024) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-023-04427-5 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Privileging medical perspectives would function as a contributory factor in epistemic injustice, for instance by reinforcing prejudices about the disorder necessarily impairing their judgement and communicative abilities (Chapman & Carel, 2022; Kidd et al., 2022).”
Injusticias epistémicas normalizadas y restricción de la agencia de las personas con discapacidad
Hernández, R., & Revuelta, B. (2024) · Acta bioethica · doi:10.4067/s1726-569x2024000100057 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Por otro lado, Chapman y Carel (35) argumentan que las personas autistas también sufren de un déficit de credibilidad.”
Tomlinson, M., & Vincent, J. (2025) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-025-01451-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“(Survey_Female_MSc_Psychology) The scope to find ‘neurodivergent modes of flourishing’ (Chapman & Carel, 2022) in the labour market was a dominant concern although as Walker (2015) contends, thriving among this group can look quite different to neurotypical groups.”
Beagan, B. L., Kamenetsky, S. B., Zaman, S., Parhar, G., & Jarus, T. (2024) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401334.2024.2439848 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“36,39,40 This is a particular form of epistemic injustice (injustice concerning knowing and knowers) known as “testimonial injus-tice.””
Between essence and diversity: Challenges for phenomenological Autism research
Hughes, E., Ekdahl, D., & Boldsen, S. (2025) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/09593543251315074 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…researchers have also emphasised the ways in which epistemic injustices continue to have profoundly detrimental consequences for the capacity of Autistic people to be the narrators of their own experiences and the authors of their own sense of self (Chapman & Carel, 2022; Ritunnano, 2022).”
Harrison, M., & Mosen, J. (2025) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2025.2527252 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Chapman and Carel (2022) articulate a neurodiversity perspective that honours human variation rather than reducing individuals to deviations from a normative scale of mild, moderate, or severe impairment.”
Angeler, D. G., Smith, E., Berk, M., Ibáñez, A. M., & Eyre, H. A. (2023) · Discover Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s44192-023-00051-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“There remains a need to account for harmful injustice and violations of human rights in health care, specifically among people with mental and physical disabilities [23].”
BackgroundAutism and Thriving: A Critical Review of the Academic Literature
Dantas, S., Jasper, C., Botha, M., Strachan, K., & Grainger, C. (2025) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2024.0228 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“4”
InfluentialMalberg, N. T., & Gori, I. (2024) · Journal of Infant Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/15289168.2024.2306460 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In a recent article by Chapman and Carel (2022), the authors expand on the importance of thinking about the impact of medical and psychiatric diagnosis in the quality of life of individuals.”
BackgroundEditorial: Addressing community priorities in autism research
Pearson, A., Surtees, A. D. R., Crompton, C. J., Goodall, C., Pillai, D., Sedgewick, F., & Au‐Yeung, S. K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1040446 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Historically, autism (and thus autistic people) has been studied through a medical lens (Chapman and Carel, 2022), owing primarily to the characterization of autism as a disorder of childhood development.”
BackgroundLonghurst, P., Aspell, J. E., Todd, J., & Swami, V. (2025) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2025.101876 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ashley, A. S. (2025) · TSQ Transgender Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1215/23289252-11710350 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Signifying the Autistic Sense of Self
Hughes, E. (2025) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-025-10318-w · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Uisma, A., Virkki, T., & Ylilahti, M. (2025) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/1467-9566.70124 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Similar to Chapman and Carel (2022), here we see how different forms of epistemic injustice influence each other.”
The Politics of Self-narration: Self-Diagnosis as Digital Counter-Narrative
Russo, G., & Ferraro, M. (2025) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-025-10338-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Liñares-de-Maarcos, J., Palomero-Sierra, B., Sánchez-Gómez, V., Fernández-Álvarez, C. J., & Canal‐Bedia, R. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1756323 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“It reframed autism as a natural form of human variation and expanded the notion of well-being to include belonging, authenticity, and self-acceptance (7).”
Bury, S. M., Dwyer, P. S. R., Flower, R. L., Richardson, E. K., & Spoor, J. R. (2026) · Neurodiversity · doi:10.1177/27546330261430009 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“In Real Life, Everything Feels so Different”: Autistic, Embodied Perspectives on Online Sociality
Ekdahl, D., & Krueger, J. W. (2026) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1177/25739581261422981 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Strengths-Based Approaches to Autism Language and Communications Research: Where Are We?
Ferreira, G. J., Getten, J., & Pesonen, H. V. (2024) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-024-00455-0 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…articles and books in psychology, whereby theoretical interpretations regarding empirical results implicitly or explicitly construct the Other as inferior or problematic, despite the availability of alternative, equally viable evidence-based interpretations (Chapman and Carel, 2022; Teo, 2010).”
England, E., Henley, J., & Sheppard, E. (2025) · Housing and Society · doi:10.1080/08882746.2025.2488643 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“One repeated criticism has been around the framing of research questions themselves, and specifically whether they are designed to produce useful, meaningful answers to problems faced by neurodivergent individuals (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
Mad, mentally ill and neurodivergent professionals: epistemic injustice in practice
Beagan, B. L., Gulliver, M., Sibbald, K. R., Pride, T. M., & Yee, B. (2025) · Disability & Society · doi:10.1080/09687599.2025.2520780 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…pathologizes these as ‘impairments’, the neurodiversity movement sees them as divergence, part of the wide range of human differences (Catala, Faucher, and Poirier 2021; Chapman and Carel 2022; Craddock 2024; Leong and Graichen 2024; Mellifont 2023; Runswick-Cole 2014; Stenning and Rosqvist 2021).”
InfluentialGrant, A., Williams, G., Williams, K., et al. (2023) · Policy Press eBooks · doi:10.51952/9781447369219.ch012 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Meinen, L. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research · doi:10.16993/sjdr.1037 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gibbs, A., Flanagan, J., & Gray, L. (2023) · Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability · doi:10.3109/13668250.2023.2271757 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“In drawing on the work of disability rights ’ researchers and activists (Chapman & Carel, 2022; Degener, 2016; Goodley & Runswick-Cole, 2016), FLWF uses the social model of disability and a neuro-diversity paradigm.”
BackgroundMethodQuality of Life Defined by Autistic People: A Thematic Analysis
Crowley, S., Kiernan, B., Heinly, J. M., Hector, B. L., Benevides, T. W., & Maddox, B. B. (2025) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2024.0180 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“22 Concerns about existing QoL measures activated conversations about the need to engage Autistic people as research participants or partners on the research team during the adaptation of an existing or the development of a novel QoL instrument.”
What do philosophers talk about when they talk about autism?
LaCroix, T., Amero, A., & Sidloski, B. (2025) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-025-05116-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…with our analysis of these data, suggest that the more 70 Some work that is contained in our corpus that at least seem to aspire to following some of these normative claims include Mole (2017); Chapman (2019, 2020); Catala et al. (2021); Chapman and Carel (2022); Boldsen (2022); Krueger (2023).”
Borren, M., & Robaszkiewicz, M. (2024) · Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology · doi:10.1080/00071773.2024.2306041 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Neurodiversity Model and Medical Model: Competitors or Alternative Perspectives?
Browning, H., & Veit, W. (2025) · AJOB Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/21507740.2024.2437994 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“To do so would be a form of epistemic injustice (Chapman and Carel 2022).”
Normative implications of postgenomic deterministic narratives: the case study of epigenetic harm
Moormann, E. (2024) · History & Philosophy of the Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s40656-024-00636-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…context of autism, what is also needed to decrease existing testimonial injustice is not only the cultivation of autistic self-understanding but also that of neurotypical epistemic humility with regard to autistic experiences and different conceptions of living a good life (Chapman & Carel, 2022).”
The absent presence of disability in British higher education
Koutsouris, G., Stentiford, L., Dimitrellou, E., Yu, Z., Pujaningsih, & Azizah, N. (2025) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.70011 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Chapman, R., & Carel, H.
- Affiliations
- Sheffield Hallam University (GB)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Chapman, Robert
- Venue
- Journal of Social Philosophy
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2022-03
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 614-631
- ISSN
- 0047-2786 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9833
- OpenAlex
- W4214900417
- Semantic Scholar
- e632ea793a644afc30913a0fa516afad48c48ca9
- Cited by
- 231
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 8
- FWCI
- 58.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Social Philosophy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Explore Bristol Research (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- SHURA (Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive) (Sheffield Hallam University) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Feminist Epistemology and Gender Studies
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Disability Rights and Representation
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Epistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics
- Keywords
- neurodiversity, epistemic injustice, testimonial injustice, hermeneutical injustice, disability, good human life, epistemic agency
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-23.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-23.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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