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Sex differences in human performance
Abstract
Sex as a biological variable is an underappreciated aspect of biomedical research, with its importance emerging in more recent years. This review assesses the current understanding of sex differences in human physical performance. Males outperform females in many physical capacities because they are faster, stronger and more powerful, particularly after male puberty. This review highlights key sex differences in physiological and anatomical systems (generally conferred via sex steroids and puberty) that contribute to these sex differences in human physical performance. Specifically, we address the effects of the primary sex steroids that affect human physical development, discuss insight gained from an observational study of ‘real‐world data’ and elite athletes, and highlight the key physiological mechanisms that contribute to sex differences in several aspects of physical performance. Physiological mechanisms discussed include those for the varying magnitude of the sex differences in performance involving: (1) absolute muscular strength and power; (2) fatigability of limb muscles as a measure of relative performance; and (3) maximal aerobic power and endurance. The profound sex‐based differences in human performance involving strength, power, speed and endurance, and that are largely attributable to the direct and indirect effects of sex‐steroid hormones, sex chromosomes and epigenetics, provide a scientific rationale and framework for policy decisions on sex‐based categories in sports during puberty and adulthood. Finally, we highlight the sex bias and problem in human performance research of insufficient studies and information on females across many areas of biology and physiology, creating knowledge gaps and opportunities for high‐impact studies. image
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“Across all levels of competition, male runners typically outperform female runners in events ranging from middle-distance to ultramarathons.”
From Ageing, Sex Differences, and REDs Risk in Endurance Runners: An Integrated Cross-Sectional Study Protocol (2026) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“This performance disparity is primarily attributed to sex-specific physiological characteristics, including higher maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), greater cardiac stroke volume, elevated haemoglobin concentrations, and larger skeletal muscle mass in men, which collectively enhance oxygen transport and utilisation during prolonged exercise.”
From Ageing, Sex Differences, and REDs Risk in Endurance Runners: An Integrated Cross-Sectional Study Protocol (2026) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“the current evidence linking menstrual-cycle phase to performance outcomes remains mixed and inconclusive.”
From Ageing, Sex Differences, and REDs Risk in Endurance Runners: An Integrated Cross-Sectional Study Protocol (2026) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“These differences largely reflect divergent hormonal environments, with testosterone promoting muscle hypertrophy, erythropoiesis, and aerobic capacity, thereby supporting higher aerobic power and endurance performance in male athletes [1,2,3].”
From Ageing, Sex Differences, and REDs Risk in Endurance Runners: An Integrated Cross-Sectional Study Protocol (2026) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“Meanwhile, existing summaries are often limited by small sample sizes, cross-sectional designs, non-athlete populations or a narrow focus on a single determinant of endurance performance [21].”
From Effects of Aging on Determinants of Endurance Performance in Women Masters Athletes: A Scoping Review (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
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200 of 260 shown
Cited by
Neteca, J., Veseta, U., Liepina, I., Volgemute, K., Dzintare, M., & Babarykin, D. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17010063 · Cited by 13
Vangsgaard, D., Noumi, M., Hayden, K. A., & Doyle-Baker, P. K. (2026) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare14081080
Oreská, Ľ., Kundeková, B., Varga, L., Stebelová, K., Okuliarová, M., Payer, J., & Sedliak, M. (2026) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports14030121
Metadata
- Authors
- Hunter, S. K., & Senefeld, J. W.
- Affiliations
- Movement Science Program, School of Kinesiology University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign Urbana Illinois USA
- Venue
- The Journal of Physiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2024-08-06
- Volume
- 602
- Issue
- 17
- Pages
- 4129-4156
- ISSN
- 0022-3751
- 1469-7793
- Cited by
- 153
- References
- 59
- Language
- en
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
