Biology-inspired microphysiological system approaches to solve the prediction dilemma of substance testing
Open accessAbstract
The recent advent of microphysiological systems - microfluidic biomimetic devices that aspire to emulate the biology of human tissues, organs and circulation in vitro - is envisaged to enable a global paradigm shift in drug development. An extraordinary US governmental initiative and various dedicated research programs in Europe and Asia have led recently to the first cutting-edge achievements of human single-organ and multi-organ engineering based on microphysiological systems. The expectation is that test systems established on this basis would model various disease stages, and predict toxicity, immunogenicity, ADME profiles and treatment efficacy prior to clinical testing. Consequently, this technology could significantly affect the way drug substances are developed in the future. Furthermore, microphysiological system-based assays may revolutionize our current global programs of prioritization of hazard characterization for any new substances to be used, for example, in agriculture, food, ecosystems or cosmetics, thus, replacing laboratory animal models used currently. Thirty-six experts from academia, industry and regulatory bodies present here the results of an intensive workshop (held in June 2015, Berlin, Germany). They review the status quo of microphysiological systems available today against industry needs, and assess the broad variety of approaches with fit-for-purpose potential in the drug development cycle. Feasible technical solutions to reach the next levels of human biology in vitro are proposed. Furthermore, key organ-on-a-chip case studies, as well as various national and international programs are highlighted. Finally, a roadmap into the future is outlined, to allow for more predictive and regulatory-accepted substance testing on a global scale.
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At present, organs-on-chips are considered the most promising way to model human diseases in vitro.
“OoCs currently constitute the most promising approach to emulate human diseases in vitro55,61.”
From Human disease models in drug development (2023) · cites this paper as [61]
Section 4.6 describes organ-on-chip projects for human disease models, and Section 7 envisages Body-on-a-chip systems providing solutions for disease modeling. The paper does not establish that organs-on-chips are currently the most promising in vitro approach; it presents some of these capabilities as future developments. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredTo date, human-based models have mainly served toxicity testing, with preclinical and clinical use still nascent.
“human-based models have so far been primarily used for toxicity testing61–64, and their application in preclinical and clinical research is still in its infancy.”
From Human disease models in drug development (2023) · cites this paper as [61]
Section 5.5 describes chemical safety testing as a major driver of human-based alternative methods. Section 3.1 presents wider pharmaceutical adoption of microphysiological systems, including use during clinical development, as prospective. The paper does not establish that human-based models have been used primarily for toxicity testing or that preclinical and clinical research applications as a whole remain in their infancy; it also describes existing disease-modeling and drug-development applications. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
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Toh, Y.-C., Zhang, C., Zhang, J., Khong, Y. M., Chang, S., Samper, V. D., van Noort, D., Hutmacher, D. W., & Yu, H. (2007) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/b614872g · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Computerized microfluidic cell culture using elastomeric channels and Braille displays
Gu, W., Zhu, X. A., Futai, N., Cho, B. S., & Takayama, S. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0404353101 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
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Reconfigurable microfluidic hanging drop network for multi-tissue interaction and analysis
Frey, O., Misun, P. M., Fluri, D. A., Hengstler, J. G., & Hierlemann, A. R. (2014) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms5250 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
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Microelectrode arrays: A physiologically based neurotoxicity testing platform for the 21st century
Johnstone, A. F. M., Gross, G. W., Weiss, D. G., Schroeder, O. H.-U., Gramowski, A., & Shafer, T. J. (2010) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2010.04.001 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
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Sin, A., Chin, K. C., Jamil, M. F., Kostov, Y. V., Rao, G., & Shuler, M. L. (2004) · Biotechnology Progress · doi:10.1021/bp034077d · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Natsch, A., Ryan, C. A., Foertsch, L. M., Emter, R., Jaworska, J., Gerberick, F., & Kern, P. (2013) · Journal of Applied Toxicology · doi:10.1002/jat.2868 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Cell-Based Biosensors and Their Application in Biomedicine
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Zhang, C., Zhao, Z., Abdul Rahim, N. A., van Noort, D., & Yu, H. (2009) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/b915147h · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Oral exposure to polystyrene nanoparticles affects iron absorption
Mahler, G. J., Esch, M. B., Tako, E., Southard, T. L., Archer, S. D., Glahn, R. P., & Shuler, M. L. (2012) · Nature Nanotechnology · doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.3 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Performance of a novel keratinocyte-based reporter cell line to screen skin sensitizers in vitro
Emter, R., Ellis, G., & Natsch, A. (2010) · Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.taap.2010.03.009 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Microscale 3-D hydrogel scaffold for biomimetic gastrointestinal (GI) tract model
Sung, J. H., Yu, J., Luo, D., Shuler, M. L., & March, J. C. (2010) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c0lc00273a · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Directed differentiation of cholangiocytes from human pluripotent stem cells
Ogawa, M., Ogawa, S., Bear, C. E., Ahmadi, S., Chin, S., Li, B., Grompe, M., Keller, G. M., Kamath, B. M., & Ghanekar, A. (2015) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt.3294 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
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Scaling and systems biology for integrating multiple organs-on-a-chip
Wikswo, J. P., Curtis, E. L., Eagleton, Z. E., Evans, B. C., Kole, A., Hofmeister, L. H., & Matloff, W. J. (2013) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c3lc50243k · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Microfabrication and microfluidics for tissue engineering: state of the art and future opportunities
Andersson, H., & van den Berg, A. (2004) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/b314469k · Cited by 309 · see citing works
Development of a Microscale Cell Culture Analog To Probe Naphthalene Toxicity
Viravaidya‐Pasuwat, K., Sin, A., & Shuler, M. L. (2004) · Biotechnology Progress · doi:10.1021/bp0341996 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
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Kimura, H., Yamamoto, T., Sakai, H., Sakai, Y., & Fujii, T. (2008) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/b717091b · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Inhibition of Angiogenesis by Thalidomide Requires Metabolic Activation, Which Is Species-dependent
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Patterned cell culture inside microfluidic devices
Rhee, S. W., Taylor, A. M., Tu, C. H., Cribbs, D. H., Cotman, C. W., & Jeon, N. L. (2004) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/b403091e · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Ho, C.-T., Lin, R., Chang, W.-Y., Chang, H., & Liu, C. (2006) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/b602036d · Cited by 283 · see citing works
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Esch, M. B., Mahler, G. J., Stokol, T., & Shuler, M. L. (2014) · Lab Chip · doi:10.1039/c4lc00371c · Cited by 281 · cited 1× · see citing works
“ALTEX 33(3), 2016 285 A µCCA platform-based two-organ chip mimicking the gastrointestinal tract by a co-culture of CaCo-2 cells and the mucin producing cell line TH29-MTX, and the liver by a HepG2/C3A cell line culture has recently been described by Shuler’s team (Esch et al., 2014).”
Ataç, B., Wagner, I. P., Horland, R., Lauster, R., Marx, U., Tonevitsky, A., Azar, R. P., & Lindner, G. (2013) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c3lc50227a · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Self-citationMicrofluidic platforms for mechanobiology
Polacheck, W. J., Li, R., Uzel, S. G. M., & Kamm, R. D. (2013) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c3lc41393d · Cited by 272 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For more details on how microfluidic tools can be used to study mechanobiology we refer to a comprehensive review (Polacheck et al., 2013).”
A Human Breathing Lung-on-a-Chip
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Tubeless microfluidic angiogenesis assay with three-dimensional endothelial-lined microvessels
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Liver-Specific Functional Studies in a Microfluidic Array of Primary Mammalian Hepatocytes
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Experimental rat models to study the metabolic syndrome
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Chemical regulators have overreached
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Microfluidic PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) Bioreactor for Large-Scale Culture of Hepatocytes
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In vitro model of tumor cell extravasation
Jeon, J. S., Zervantonakis, I. K., Chung, S., Kamm, R. D., & Charest, J. L. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056910 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Human iPS cell–derived alveolar epithelium repopulates lung extracellular matrix
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A roadmap for the development of alternative (non-animal) methods for systemic toxicity testing
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Putting the parts together: Combining in vitro methods to test for skin sensitizing potentials
Bauch, C., Kolle, S. N., Ramı́rez, T., Eltze, T., Fabian, E. J., Mehling, A., Teubner, W., van Ravenzwaay, B., & Landsiedel, R. (2012) · Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.05.013 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
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State-of-the-art of 3D cultures (organs-on-a-chip) in safety testing and pathophysiology
Alépée, N. (2014) · ALTEX · doi:10.14573/altex1406111 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Mahler, G. J., Esch, M. B., Glahn, R. P., & Shuler, M. L. (2009) · Biotechnology and Bioengineering · doi:10.1002/bit.22366 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
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Self-citationMacro- and microscale fluid flow systems for endothelial cell biology
Young, E. W. K., & Simmons, C. A. (2009) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/b913390a · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Rothen‐Rutishauser, B., Blank, F., Mühlfeld, C., & Gehr, P. (2008) · Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology · doi:10.1517/17425255.4.8.1075 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Brown, H. S., Griffin, M., & Houston, J. B. (2006) · Drug Metabolism and Disposition · doi:10.1124/dmd.106.011569 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Luminescence Lifetime Imaging of Oxygen, pH, and Carbon Dioxide Distribution Using Optical Sensors
Liebsch, G., Klimant, I., Frank, B., Holst, G., & Wolfbeis, O. S. (2000) · Applied Spectroscopy · doi:10.1366/0003702001949726 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Evaluation of Differentiated Human Bronchial Epithelial Cell Culture Systems for Asthma Research
Stewart, C. E., Torr, E., Jamili, N. H. M., Bosquillon, C., & Sayers, I. (2012) · Journal of Allergy · doi:10.1155/2012/943982 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
The Directed Differentiation of Human iPS Cells into Kidney Podocytes
Song, B., Smink, A. M., Jones, C. V., Callaghan, J. M., Firth, S. D., Bernard, C. C. A., Laslett, A. L., Kerr, P. G., & Ricardo, S. D. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046453 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Look back in anger – what clinical studies tell us about preclinical work
Härtung, T. (2013) · ALTEX · doi:10.14573/altex.2013.3.275 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
van Midwoud, P. M., Merema, M. T., Verpoorte, E., & Groothuis, G. M. M. (2010) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c0lc00043d · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Alternative Approaches Can Reduce the Use of Test Animals under REACH.
Katinka, V. D. J., j., M. S., Tørsløv, J., & de Bruijn, J. H. M. (2004) · Joint Research Centre (European Commission) · Cited by 202 · see citing works
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Development of a Hybrid Liver Support System: A Review
Gerlach, J. (1996) · The International Journal of Artificial Organs · doi:10.1177/039139889601901105 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Microfluidic titer plate for stratified 3D cell culture
Trietsch, S. J., Israëls, G. D., Joore, J., Hankemeier, T., & Vulto, P. (2013) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c3lc50210d · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Translational research: 4 ways to fix the clinical trial
Ledford, H. K. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/477526a · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Consensus report on the future of animal-free systemic toxicity testing
Leist, M. (2014) · ALTEX · doi:10.14573/altex.1406091 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Esch, M. B., Sung, J. H., Yang, J. H., Yu, C., Yu, J., March, J. C., & Shuler, M. L. (2012) · Biomedical Microdevices · doi:10.1007/s10544-012-9669-0 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Baker, B. M., Trappmann, B., Stapleton, S. C., Toro, E., & Chen, C. S. (2013) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c3lc50493j · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Integrating biological vasculature into a multi-organ-chip microsystem
Schimek, K. M. S., Busek, M., Brincker, S., Groth, B., Hoffmann, S., Lauster, R., Lindner, G., Lorenz, A., Menzel, U., Sonntag, F., et al. (2013) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c3lc50217a · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Self-citationMuscle on a chip: In vitro contractility assays for smooth and striated muscle
Grosberg, A., Nesmith, A. P., Goss, J. A., Brigham, M. D., McCain, M. L., & Parker, K. K. (2012) · Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods · doi:10.1016/j.vascn.2012.04.001 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Migration dynamics of breast cancer cells in a tunable 3D interstitial flow chamber
Haessler, U., Teo, J. C. M., Foretay, D., Renaud, P., & Swartz, M. A. (2012) · Integrative Biology · doi:10.1039/c1ib00128k · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Engineering Challenges for Instrumenting and Controlling Integrated Organ-on-Chip Systems
Wikswo, J. P., Block, F. E., Cliffel, D. E., Goodwin, C. R., Marasco, C. C., Markov, D. A., McLean, D. L., MCLEAN, J. A. J., McKenzie, J. R., Reiserer, R. S., et al. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2013.2244891 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Integrated testing strategies (ITS) for safety assessment
Rovida, C. (2014) · ALTEX · doi:10.14573/altex.1411011 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Lahar, N., Lei, N., Wang, J., Jabaji, Z. B., Tung, S. C., Joshi, V. S., Lewis, M. S., Stelzner, M. G., Martı́n, M. G., & Dunn, J. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026898 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Marx, U., Walles, H., Hoffmann, S., Lindner, G., Horland, R., Sonntag, F., Klotzbach, U., Sakharov, D. A., Tonevitsky, A., & Lauster, R. (2012) · Alternatives to Laboratory Animals · doi:10.1177/026119291204000504 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Self-citationAutomated cell culture in high density tubeless microfluidic device arrays
Meyvantsson, I., Warrick, J. W., Hayes, S. A., Skoien, A., & Beebe, D. J. (2008) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/b715375a · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Imura, Y., Sato, K., & Yoshimura, E. (2010) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/ac100806x · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Generation of Functional Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Different Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Lines
Hynes, K., Menicanin, D., Mrozik, K. M., Gronthos, S., & Bartold, P. M. (2013) · Stem Cells and Development · doi:10.1089/scd.2013.0111 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
SnapShot: Growing Organoids from Stem Cells
Sato, T., & Clevers, H. (2015) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.06.028 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
In vitro analysis of a hepatic device with intrinsic microvascular-based channels
Carraro, A., Hsu, W.-M., Kulig, K. M., Cheung, W. S., Miller, M. L., Weinberg, E. J., Swart, E. F., Kaazempur-Mofrad, M., Borenstein, J. T., Vacanti, J. P., et al. (2008) · Biomedical Microdevices · doi:10.1007/s10544-008-9194-3 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Wang, X., Jin, Z., Gan, B.-W., Lv, S., Xie, M., & Huang, W. (2014) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c4lc00069b · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Jaworska, J. S., Natsch, A., Ryan, C. A., Strickland, J. A., Ashikaga, T., & Miyazawa, M. (2015) · Archives of Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00204-015-1634-2 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Integrated testing strategies for safety assessments
Härtung, T. (2013) · ALTEX · doi:10.14573/altex.2013.1.003 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Inflammatory findings on species extrapolations: humans are definitely no 70-kg mice
Leist, M., & Härtung, T. (2013) · Archives of Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00204-013-1038-0 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Gerberick, G. F., Troutman, J. A., Foertsch, L. M., Vassallo, J. D., Quijano, M., Dobson, R. L. M., Goebel, C., & Lepoittevin, J. (2009) · Toxicological Sciences · doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfp192 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Polymer-Based Microfluidic Devices for Pharmacy, Biology and Tissue Engineering
Alrifaiy, A., Lindahl, O., & Ramser, K. C. (2012) · Polymers · doi:10.3390/polym4031349 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Local lymph node assay (LLNA) for detection of sensitization capacity of chemicals
Gerberick, G. F., Ryan, C. A., Dearman, R. J., & Kimber, I. (2006) · Methods · doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2006.07.006 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
In vitro 3D human small intestinal villous model for drug permeability determination
Yu, J., Peng, S., Luo, D., & March, J. C. (2012) · Biotechnology and Bioengineering · doi:10.1002/bit.24518 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Liver tissue engineering in the evaluation of drug safety
Dash, A., Inman, W., Hoffmaster, K. A., Sevidal, S., Kelly, J., Obach, R. S., Griffith, L. G., & Tannenbaum, S. R. (2009) · Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology · doi:10.1517/17425250903160664 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Burden, N., Chapman, K. L., Sewell, F. R., & Robinson, V. (2015) · PubMed Central · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Structure-guided inhibitor design for human FAAH by interspecies active site conversion
Mileni, M., Johnson, D. S., Wang, Z., Everdeen, D. S., Liimatta, M. B., Pabst, B. A., Bhattacharya, K., Nugent, R. A., Kamtekar, S., Cravatt, B. F., et al. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0806121105 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
A microfluidic platform for probing small artery structure and function
Günther, A., Yasotharan, S., Vagaon, A., Lochovsky, C., Pinto, S., Yang, J., Lau, C. H., Voigtlaender‐Bolz, J., & Bolz, S. (2010) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c004675b · Cited by 154 · see citing works
A multi-organ chip co-culture of neurospheres and liver equivalents for long-term substance testing
Dehne, E., Ramme, A. P., Terrasso, A. P., Serra, M., Alves, P. M., Brito, C., Sakharov, D. A., Tonevitsky, A., Lauster, R., & Marx, U. (2015) · Journal of Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2015.02.002 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Self-citationHierlemann, A. R., Frey, U., Hafizovic, S., & Heer, F. (2010) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2010.2066532 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Microfluidic Organ/Body-on-a-Chip Devices at the Convergence of Biology and Microengineering
Perestrelo, A. R., Águas, A. C., Rainer, A., & Forte, G. (2015) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s151229848 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
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Tatosian, D. A., & Shuler, M. L. (2008) · Biotechnology and Bioengineering · doi:10.1002/bit.22219 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
A biomimetic multicellular model of the airways using primary human cells
Sellgren, K. L., Butala, E., Gilmour, B. P., Randell, S. H., & Grego, S. (2014) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c4lc00552j · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Moreno, E. L., Hachi, S., Hemmer, K., Trietsch, S. J., Baumuratov, A., Hankemeier, T., Vulto, P., Schwamborn, J. C., & Fleming, R. M. T. (2015) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c5lc00180c · Cited by 144 · see citing works
ICCVAM Evaluation of the Murine Local Lymph Node Assay
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Gordon, S. (2015) · ALTEX · doi:10.14573/altex.1510051 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Lessons from the withdrawal of rofecoxib: ***
Dieppe, P. A., Ebrahim, S. B. J., Martin, R. M., & Jüni, P. (2004) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7471.867 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Bayesian integrated testing strategy to assess skin sensitization potency: from theory to practice
Jaworska, J. S., Dancik, Y., Kern, P., Gerberick, F., & Natsch, A. (2013) · Journal of Applied Toxicology · doi:10.1002/jat.2869 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Recent Advances in Neural Recording Microsystems
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- Authors
- Marx, U.
- Corresponding author
- Marx, Uwe
- ORCID
- Marx, Uwe
- Venue
- ALTEX
- Publisher
- ALTEX Edition
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 272-321
- ISSN
- 0946-7785 (ISSN-L)
- 1868-596X
- PMC
- PMC5396467
- OpenAlex
- W2373100661
- Cited by
- 295
- References
- 373
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 48 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 9
- FWCI
- 3.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- ALTEX (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Rivm (National Institute for Public Health and the Environment) (submittedVersion)
- OpenAgrar (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- ETH Zürich Research Collection (cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 TR999999)
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration
- National Human Genome Research Institute (Z01HG200319)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › 3D Printing in Biomedical Research
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal testing and alternatives
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Microfluidic and Capillary Electrophoresis Applications
- Keywords
- microphysiological systems, organ-on-a-chip, toxicity prediction, hazard characterization, alternatives to animal testing, drug development, in vitro disease model, ADME prediction, regulatory acceptance, microfluidics
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Testing Alternatives, Cell Line, Stem Cells, Hazardous Substances, Toxicity Tests, Lab-On-A-Chip Devices
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