Therapy Dog Welfare Revisited: A Review of the Literature

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Evaluations were based on self-reports of dog handlers, recipients and the experimenter.

“Evaluations were based on self-reports of dog handlers, recipients and the experimenter.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Seven studies included programs in which recipients participated in groups of two or more; two included single recipient sessions; two included both; one did not provide further information.

“Seven studies included programs in which recipients participated in groups of two or more individuals. Two studies included programs with single recipient sessions, two studies included both single and group sessions, and one study did not provide any further information.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Session duration varied between ten and ninety minutes, and intervals between sessions ranged from 15 min to once per month; four studies did not provide further information.

“As depicted in Table 2, session duration varied between ten and ninety minutes, intervals between sessions ranged from 15 min to once per month; however, four studies did not provide any further information.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The number of dogs included in the studies ranged from two to forty individuals (Md = 7.5, SD = 11.45).

“The number of dogs included in the studies ranged from two to forty individuals (Md = 7.5, SD = 11.45).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Six studies included adult recipients, four included child recipients, and two did not provide further information.

“Six studies included adult recipients, four studies included child recipients, and two studies did not provide any further information.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

AAI sessions were carried out in different environments such as a hospital, healthcare or outpatient unit, kindergarten, school, university campus, prison, and training campsite.

“The AAI sessions were carried out in different environments such as a hospital, healthcare or outpatient unit, kindergarten, school, university campus, prison, and training campsite of the organization.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Research methods in recent AAI dog welfare studies are similar to those described by Glenk, with salivary cortisol, behavior and perceived stress level evaluations continuing to be the most common approaches.

“Research methods are similar to those described by Glenk [2], thus, the analysis of salivary cortisol, behavior and perceived stress level evaluations continue to be the most common approaches in assessing dog welfare.”

• cites [2] Glenk, L.M. (2017). Current Perspectives on Therapy Dog Welfare in Animal-Assisted Interventions. Animals, 7. sourceNot checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

Participation in an AAI session stimulated both synchronous behaviors with the owner and socio-positive behaviors such as attention, sniffing, affiliative and playful behavior.

“Participation in an AAI session stimulated both synchronous behaviors with the owner [13] and socio-positive behaviors such as attention, sniffing, affiliative and playful behavior [17].”

• cites [13] Pirrone, 2017, Measuring social synchrony and stress in the handler-dog dyad during animal-assisted activities: A pilot study, J. Vet. Behav. sourceCheck pending
• cites [17] Corsetti, S., Ferrara, M., and Natoli, E. (2019). Evaluating Stress in Dogs Involved in Animal-Assisted Interventions. Animals, 9. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

Studies have found an AAI-related increase in behavioral stress, salivary cortisol, heart rate and breath rate.

“In contrast, studies have found an AAI-related increase in behavioral stress [19], salivary cortisol [21], heart rate [13,21] and breath rate [21]).”

• cites [19] Silas, 2019, Therapeutic for all? Observational assessments of therapy canine stress in an on-campus stress-reduction program, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [21] Nunes, 2020, The combined use of salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate, and respiratory rate for the welfare assessment of dogs involved in AAI programs, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [13] Pirrone, 2017, Measuring social synchrony and stress in the handler-dog dyad during animal-assisted activities: A pilot study, J. Vet. Behav. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

To date, there are no studies available on inequity aversion in therapy dogs.

“To date, there are no studies available on inequity aversion in therapy dogs.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Novel methods in AAI dog welfare research include the determination of salivary oxytocin, tympanic ear membrane temperature and respiration rates.

“Novel methods include the determination of salivary oxytocin, tympanic ear membrane temperature and respiration rates.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The variability across the methodology in these studies and the lack of standardized protocols is a limitation and hinders broad comparisons between studies.

“Notably, the variability across the methodology in these studies and the lack of standardized protocols is a limitation and hinders broad comparisons between studies.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

There are no experimental data available about the ideal age for a dog to participate in therapeutic settings.

“However, there are no experimental data available about the ideal age for a dog to participate in therapeutic settings.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The assessment of oxytocin, tympanic ear membrane temperature and respiration are novel methods in AAI research.

“The assessment of oxytocin, tympanic ear membrane temperature and respiration are novel methods in AAI research.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

There is a gap in knowledge of the long-term effects on dogs participating in AAI programs.

“There still exists a gap in knowledge of the long-term effects on dogs participating in AAI programs.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Identification of an ideal baseline remains an unresolved issue.

“identification of an ideal baseline remains an unresolved issue that will hopefully be addressed in the future.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: There is enormous variability in the living conditions of each dog, including single-households, traditional families, patchwork-families, and individual or conspecific housing.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Currently, there are no standards for best practices in puppy raising techniques.

“Currently, there are no standards for best practices in puppy raising techniques.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Little evidence exists as to the optimal timing of stimulus exposure as well as the initial level of exposure.

“Little evidence exists as to the optimal timing of stimulus exposure as well as the initial level of exposure.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In most studies, sample sizes are relatively small, which hinders the generalization of the findings.

“In most studies, sample sizes are relatively small which hinders the generalization of the findings.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Therapy dog certification procedures vary substantially.

“Further, it must be acknowledged that therapy dog certification procedures vary substantially and so do predictors of suitability for the role of a therapy dog.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The AAII's Standards of Practice state that animals are sentient beings with needs equal to that of the person.

“Notably, the AAII′s Standards of Practice state that animals are “sentient beings with needs equal to that of the person” [9] (p. 18).”

• cites [9] Animal-Assisted Intervention International (AAII) (2021, April 05). Animal-Assisted Intervention International Standards of Practice. Available online: https://aai-int.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/02/AAII-Standards-of-Practice.pdf.Not checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

In Pirrone et al., social synchrony occurred prior to and during AAAs, with joint attention being the most prevalent behavior.

“Social synchrony occurred prior to and during AAAs with joint attention being the most prevalent behavior.”

• cites [13] Pirrone, 2017, Measuring social synchrony and stress in the handler-dog dyad during animal-assisted activities: A pilot study, J. Vet. Behav. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

Duplicate publications were identified and not considered, resulting in the exclusion of one study.

“As this paper builds on a previous review of the literature [2] duplicate publications were identified and not considered in the present analysis, resulting in the exclusion of one study [12].”

• cites [2] Glenk, L.M. (2017). Current Perspectives on Therapy Dog Welfare in Animal-Assisted Interventions. Animals, 7. sourceNot checked yet
• cites [12] Palestrini, 2017, Stress level evaluation in a dog during animal-assisted therapy in pediatric surgery, J. Vet. Behav. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

In Pirrone et al., heart rate was higher in dogs on working days with AAA sessions compared to control days, but values remained within the common physiological range, suggesting only minor increased arousal.

“Although heart rate was higher in dogs on working days with AAA sessions compared to control days, values remained within the common physiological range, suggesting only minor increased arousal.”

• cites [13] Pirrone, 2017, Measuring social synchrony and stress in the handler-dog dyad during animal-assisted activities: A pilot study, J. Vet. Behav. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Colussi et al. stated that AAAs can be considered as low-intensity exercises, while dogs provide high psychological support to recipients.

“The authors stated that AAAs can be considered as low-intensity exercises, while dogs provide high psychological support to recipients.”

• cites [15] Colussi, 2018, Variations of salivary cortisol in dogs exposed to different cognitive and physical activities, Ital. J. Anim. Sci. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Having an additional sentient partner requires the adept skills of the AAI handler in order to split attention, maintain desired outcomes, and respond quickly and appropriately to all participants throughout a session.

“Having an additional sentient partner requires the adept skills of the AAI handler in order to split attention, maintain desired outcomes, and respond quickly and appropriately to all participants throughout a session.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

In Pirrone et al., individual preferences for physical contact with recipients were described, with some dogs more willing to initiate physical contact than others.

“Individual preferences for physical contact with recipients were described with some dogs being more willing to initiate physical contact with the recipients than others [13].”

• cites [13] Pirrone, 2017, Measuring social synchrony and stress in the handler-dog dyad during animal-assisted activities: A pilot study, J. Vet. Behav. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Adding a sentient being to a therapeutic setting creates a triangular relationship rather than a bidirectional one.

“Adding a sentient being to a therapeutic setting, therefore, creates a triangular relationship rather than a bidirectional one.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

In Colussi et al., significantly higher pre-session cortisol levels may be associated with anticipation stress or arousal during transportation to the facility, but a causal relationship could not be inferred.

“Significantly higher pre-session cortisol levels may be associated with anticipation stress or arousal during transportation to the facility, but a causal relationship could not be inferred [15].”

• cites [15] Colussi, 2018, Variations of salivary cortisol in dogs exposed to different cognitive and physical activities, Ital. J. Anim. Sci. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

In McCullough et al., during AAI sessions, higher salivary cortisol was associated with an increased frequency of stress behaviors and a reduced frequency of affiliative behaviors.

“However, during AAI sessions, higher salivary cortisol was associated with an increased frequency of stress behaviors and a reduced frequency of affiliative behaviors.”

• cites [14] McCullough, 2018, Physiological and behavioral effects of animal-assisted interventions on therapy dogs in pediatric oncology settings, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Corsetti et al. considered the workload the therapy dogs were exposed to during their investigation as adequate.

“Accounting for these findings, the authors considered the workload the therapy dogs were exposed to during their investigation as adequate [17].”

• cites [17] Corsetti, S., Ferrara, M., and Natoli, E. (2019). Evaluating Stress in Dogs Involved in Animal-Assisted Interventions. Animals, 9. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Animal Assisted Intervention International Standards (2019) applies the Five Domains Model, expanding the Five Freedoms by providing an operational methodology for evaluating conditions impacting animal welfare and affecting the quality of the animal's mental state.

“The Animal Assisted Intervention International Standards (2019) applies the Five Domains Model [9] (p. 4) expanding the “Five Freedoms” by providing an operational methodology for evaluating conditions impacting animal welfare and affecting the quality of the animal′s mental state.”

• cites [9] Animal-Assisted Intervention International (AAII) (2021, April 05). Animal-Assisted Intervention International Standards of Practice. Available online: https://aai-int.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/02/AAII-Standards-of-Practice.pdf.Not checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

In McCullough et al., more stress-related behaviors were seen if the child put a bandanna on the dog, and fewer affiliative behaviors were found if the child used a stethoscope to listen to the dog's heartbeat, played a game on the dog's vest, or drew a picture of the dog.

“For instance, more stress-related behaviors were seen if the child put a bandanna on the dog and fewer affiliative behaviors were found if the child used a stethoscope to listen to the dog′s heartbeat, the child played a game on the dog′s vest or drew a picture of the dog [14].”

• cites [14] McCullough, 2018, Physiological and behavioral effects of animal-assisted interventions on therapy dogs in pediatric oncology settings, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

Both dogs and robotic animals reduced behavioral and psychological symptoms and depression and improved mood and quality of life among residents with dementia in nursing homes.

“Both reduced behavioral and psychological symptoms and depression and improved mood and quality of life among residents with dementia in nursing homes.”

• cites [42] Aarskog, 2019, Animal-Assisted Interventions with Dogs and Robotic Animals for Residents with Dementia in Nursing Homes: A Systematic Review, Phys. Occup. Ther. I Geritatrics sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Cascading levels of stress may decrease synchrony between interacting individuals.

“Since cascading levels of stress may decrease synchrony between interacting individuals [53],”

• cites [53] Azhari, 2019, Parenting Stress Undermines Mother-Child Brain-to-Brain Synchrony: A Hyperscanning Study, Sci Rep. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

Dogs spent significantly more time in proximity to and touching the recipient while gazing more at their handlers.

“However, dogs spent significantly more time in proximity to and touching the recipient while gazing more at their handlers.”

• cites [50] Wanser, 2019, Does attachment security to a human handler influence the behavior of dogs who engage in animal assisted activities?, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Although indicators of welfare appeared to be significantly raised, the authors concluded that they predominantly fluctuate within the physiological range.

“Although indicators of welfare appeared to be significantly raised, the authors concluded that they predominantly fluctuate within the physiological range.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The literature review revealed a median of 7.5 dogs, so the science on therapy dog welfare is still characterized by relatively small samples of included dogs.

“The literature review revealed a median of 7.5 dogs, thus, the science on therapy dog welfare is still characterized by relatively small samples of included dogs.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In study [21], dogs that had to be transported for more than 50 min from their homes to the AAI sites panted more and had higher heart rates.

“In addition, dogs that had to be transported for more than 50 min from their homes to the AAI sites panted more and had higher heart rates.”

• cites [21] Nunes, 2020, The combined use of salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate, and respiratory rate for the welfare assessment of dogs involved in AAI programs, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Iannuzzi and Rowan stated in 1991 that AAI sessions should be no longer than 60 min.

“Although Iannuzzi and Rowan already stated in 1991, that AAI sessions should be no longer than 60 min”

• cites [34] Iannuzzi, 1991, Ethical issues in animal-assisted therapy programs, Anthrozoös sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

These findings underline the importance of recipient instruction prior to any human-animal interaction as both recipients and staff members may not automatically interact appropriately with the therapy dog.

“These findings underline the importance of recipient instruction prior to any human–animal interaction as both recipients and staff members may not automatically interact appropriately with the therapy dog [33].”

• cites [33] Hatch, 2007, The view from all fours: A look at an animal-assisted activity program from the animals’ perspective, Anthrozoös sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Therapy dogs' post-session cortisol levels were lower in dogs rated as minimally stressed, but there was no change in salivary cortisol in dogs rated as severely stressed by their handlers.

“However, therapy dogs’ post-session cortisol levels were lower in dogs rated as minimally stressed but there was no change in salivary cortisol in dogs that were rated as severely stressed by their handlers [28].”

• cites [28] Koda, 2015, Stress levels in dogs, and its recognition by their handlers, during animal-assisted therapy in a prison, Anim. Welf. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

In study [21], some dogs provided values considered outside of physiological thresholds, which were attributed to high temperature, fear of being transported by car and being overcrowded by recipients.

“Some dogs provided values considered outside of physiological thresholds, which were attributed to high temperature, fear of being transported by car and being overcrowded by recipients [21].”

• cites [21] Nunes, 2020, The combined use of salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate, and respiratory rate for the welfare assessment of dogs involved in AAI programs, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Restraint has previously been linked with higher arousal that increase urinary adrenaline and noradrenaline.

“Restraint has previously been linked with higher arousal that increase urinary adrenaline and noradrenaline [32].”

• cites [32] Uetake, 2007, Stress response of dogs repeatedly participated in animal-assisted activities at special nursing homes for elderly people, Anim. Behav. Manag. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

The handler's presence may serve as a secure base for dogs to confidently perform the AAA-related tasks and dogs may use their gaze during social referencing.

“Thus, the handler′s presence may serve as a secure base for dogs to confidently perform the AAA-related tasks and dogs may use their gaze during social referencing.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Inequity aversion is suggested to be an adaptive mechanism to promote cooperative interactions between non-related individuals.

“It is suggested to be an adaptive mechanism to promote cooperative interactions between non-related individuals [55].”

• cites [55] Brosnan, 2014, Evolution of responses to (un)fairness, Science sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

Silas et al. revealed inconsistencies when correlating handler and researcher stress level ratings, suggesting that handler perceptions may be more accurate in reflecting their dogs' experiences.

“The study also revealed some inconsistencies when correlating handler and researcher stress level ratings, suggesting that handler perceptions may be more accurate in reflecting their dogs′ experiences [19].”

• cites [19] Silas, 2019, Therapeutic for all? Observational assessments of therapy canine stress in an on-campus stress-reduction program, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

In Melco et al., neither the dogs' salivary cortisol levels nor heart rates showed any changes associated with therapy performance across six sessions.

“Neither the dogs′ salivary cortisol levels nor heart rates showed any changes associated with therapy performance across six sessions.”

• cites [20] Melco, 2020, Investigation of physiological and behavioral responses in dogs participating in animal-assisted therapy with children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Frequent gazing at the owner in less secure dogs could be caused by the fact that they require more guidance and reassurance from their handlers.

“In fact, frequent gazing at the owner in less secure dogs could be caused by the fact that they require more guidance and reassurance from their handlers.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Research in equine-assisted therapy has indicated that synchrony in heart rate varies with the relationship intensity in AAI recipients, horses and therapist.

“research in equine-assisted therapy has indicated that synchrony in heart rate varies with the relationship intensity in AAI recipients, horses and therapist [52].”

• cites [52] Naber, 2019, Heart rate, heart rate variability and salivary cortisol as indicators of arousal and synchrony in clients with intellectual disability, horses and therapist during equine-assisted interventions, Pet. Behav. Sci. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The human-dog dyad has been characterized as a mutual relationship affecting both physiology and mental state.

“In fact, the human–dog dyad has been characterized as a mutual relationship affecting both physiology and mental state [44].”

• cites [44] Odendaal, 2003, Neurophysiological correlates of affliative behavior between humans and dogs, Vet. J. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Stressful experiences may be buffered by the support of the human attachment figure and different attachment styles are also prevalent in dogs.

“Moreover, stressful experiences may be buffered by the support of the human attachment figure and different attachment styles are also prevalent in dogs [49].”

• cites [49] Payne, 2015, Current perspectives on attachment and bonding in the dog-human dyad, Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

These data suggest that AAI performances are sometimes linked with higher arousal and that handler perceptions can reflect the dog experience to some extent.

“In sum, these data suggest that AAI performances are sometimes linked with higher arousal and that handler perceptions can reflect the dog experience to some extent.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Range et al. found that unequally rewarded dogs refused participation in a paw lifting task earlier, hesitated longer to respond to human commands and exhibited more stress-related behaviors.

“The data highlighted that unequally rewarded dogs refused participation in a paw lifting task earlier, hesitated longer to respond to human commands and exhibited more stress-related behaviors [58].”

• cites [58] Range, 2009, The absence of reward induces inequity aversion in dogs, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Dogs are sensitive to unequal treatment and may cooperate less if they observe that a conspecific may receive more treats, praise or attention for similar compliance.

“In such cases, handlers should be aware that dogs are sensitive to unequal treatment and may cooperate less if they observe that a conspecific may receive more treats, praise or attention for similar compliance.”

• cites [58] Range, 2009, The absence of reward induces inequity aversion in dogs, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [59] Brucks, D., Essler, J.L., Marshall-Pescini, S., and Range, F. (2016). Inequity Aversion Negatively Affects Tolerance and Contact-Seeking Behaviours towards Partner and Experimenter. PLoS ONE, 11. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

According to handler ratings in Silas et al., 25% of therapy dogs had increased stress levels, 22.5% had decreased stress levels, and 52.5% had no change in stress level over the course of their time working in a session.

“According to handler ratings, 25% of therapy dogs had increased stress levels, 22.5% had decreased stress levels, and 52.5% had no change in stress level over the course of their time working in a session.”

• cites [19] Silas, 2019, Therapeutic for all? Observational assessments of therapy canine stress in an on-campus stress-reduction program, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Clark et al. findings suggest that the handlers were sensitive to their dog's experiences and that their perception is in line with the physiological state of their dog.

“These findings suggest that the handlers were sensitive to their dog’s experiences and that their perception is in line with the physiological state of their dog.”

• cites [22] Clark, S.D., Martin, F., McGowan, R.T.S., Smidt, J.M., Anderson, R., Wang, L., Turpin, T., Langenfeld-McCoy, N., Bauer, B.A., and Mohabbat, A.B. (2020). Physiological State of Therapy Dogs during Animal-Assisted Activities in an Outpatient Setting. Animals, 10. sourceNot checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

Dogs displayed more stress-related and fewer affiliative behaviors if recipients carried out actions directly on the dog.

“Additionally, dogs displayed more stress-related and fewer affiliate behaviors if recipients carried out actions directly on the dog [14].”

• cites [14] McCullough, 2018, Physiological and behavioral effects of animal-assisted interventions on therapy dogs in pediatric oncology settings, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Barber et al. found that robotic dogs may be just as effective and a suitable replacement in certain situations with therapeutic benefits for children and young people.

“Barber et al. found that robotic dogs may be just as effective and a suitable replacement in certain situations with therapeutic benefits for children and young people [39].”

• cites [39] Barber, 2020, Children’s Evaluations of a Therapy Dog and Biomimetic Robot: Influences of Animistic Beliefs and Social Interaction, Intern. J. Soc. Robot. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Attachment has been associated with the human-dog dyad and is characterized by behaviors like proximity seeking, exploration and separation distress.

“Thus, attachment has also been associated with the human–dog dyad and is characterized by behaviors like proximity seeking, exploration and separation distress.”

• cites [46] Csanyi, 1998, Attachment behavior in dogs (Canis familiaris): A new application of Ainsworth’s (1969) Strange Situation Test, J. Comp. Psychol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [47] Custance, 2003, Is the dog-human relationship an attachment bond? An observational study using Ainsworth’s strange situation, Behaviour sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [48] Horn, 2013, Dogs’ attention towards humans depends on their relationship, not only on social familiarity, Anim. Cogn. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Robot animals may work as substitutes for living animals to some extent.

“An emerging body of literature has stated that robot animals may work as substitutes for living animals to some extent [38].”

• cites [38] Park, S., Bak, A., Kim, S., Nam, Y., Kim, H.S., Yoo, D.-H., and Moon, M. (2020). Animal-Assisted and Pet-Robot Interventions for Ameliorating Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Biomedicines, 8. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Pirrone et al. did not reveal any synchronic patterns in the physiological reference markers heart rate or salivary cortisol.

“Although the findings by Pirrone et al. did not reveal any synchronic patterns in the physiological reference markers heart rate or salivary cortisol [13],”

• cites [13] Pirrone, 2017, Measuring social synchrony and stress in the handler-dog dyad during animal-assisted activities: A pilot study, J. Vet. Behav. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

Children spent a comparable amount of time stroking both the real-life dog and the robot and spent more time interacting with the robot, even though the children reported they significantly preferred the sessions with the living dog.

“The children spent a comparable amount of time stroking both the real-life dog and the robot and spent more time interacting with the robot, even though the children reported they significantly preferred the sessions with the living dog.”

• cites [39] Barber, 2020, Children’s Evaluations of a Therapy Dog and Biomimetic Robot: Influences of Animistic Beliefs and Social Interaction, Intern. J. Soc. Robot. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

In Clark et al., heart rates and right tympanic ear membrane temperatures were significantly lower post-session, indicating a neutral to emotionally positive reaction towards the sessions.

“heart rates and right tympanic ear membrane temperatures were significantly lower post-session, indicating a neutral to emotionally positive reaction towards the sessions.”

• cites [23] Clark, 2020, The Impact of a 20-Minute Animal-Assisted Activity Session on the Physiological and Emotional States in Patients with Fibromyalgia, Mayo Clin. Proc. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Silas et al. explain their findings with a certain excitement arising in therapy dogs when they are taken to a novel environment.

“The authors explain their findings with a certain excitement arising in therapy dogs when they are taken to a novel environment.”

• cites [19] Silas, 2019, Therapeutic for all? Observational assessments of therapy canine stress in an on-campus stress-reduction program, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

This effect has often been accompanied by decreases in cortisol.

“This effect has often been accompanied by decreases in cortisol.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The level of arousal pre-session is likely affected by previous experience, the novelty of the environment, and whether the dog is comfortable with transportation.

“Thus, the level of arousal pre-session is likely affected by previous experience, the novelty of the environment, and whether the dog is comfortable with transportation.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Mills et al. identified stressor aspects (affective quality, intensity, magnitude, and duration) and proposed predictability and expectation to decrease their negative impact.

“Mills et al. identified stressor aspects (affective quality, intensity, magnitude, and duration) and proposed predictability and expectation to decrease their negative impact [86].”

• cites [86] Mills, 2014, Stress—Its Effects on Health and Behavior: A Guide for Practitioners, Vet. Clin. Small Anim. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Oxytocin is a molecule of particular interest given its potency in buffering stress responses by acting on both glucocorticoid and beta-adrenergic receptors.

“Oxytocin is a molecule of particular interest given its potency in buffering stress responses by acting on both glucocorticoid and beta-adrenergic receptors.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Acute stress and emotional arousal have been related to changes in right ear tympanic membrane temperature.

“Acute stress [100] and emotional arousal [101] have been related to changes in right ear tympanic membrane temperature.”

• cites [100] Pereira, 2019, Rightward Tympanic Membrane Temperature Bias During Acute Restraint-Isolation Stress in Marmoset Monkeys, Front. Neurosci. sourceCheck pending
• cites [101] Mazzotti, 2009, The right ear but not the left ear temperature is related to stress-induced cortisolaemia in the domestic cat (Felis catus), Laterality sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Emotions affect ventilation and the respiratory rate increases, for instance, with experimentally-induced anticipatory anxiety.

“Emotions affect ventilation and the respiratory rate increases, for instance, with experimentally-induced anticipatory anxiety [103].”

• cites [103] Nicolò, A., Massaroni, C., Schena, E., and Sacchetti, M. (2020). The Importance of Respiratory Rate Monitoring: From Healthcare to Sport and Exercise. Sensors, 20. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

Respiration is sensitive to movement and various cognitive tasks, proportionally increasing with the difficulty of a task.

“Furthermore, respiration is sensitive to movement and various cognitive tasks, proportionally increasing with the difficulty of a task [106].”

• cites [106] Grassmann, 2016, Respiratory Changes in Response to Cognitive Load: A Systematic Review, Neural Plast. sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Environment affects socialization and it is vitally important to rear the young dogs in optimal settings, introducing them to a range of stimuli in a positive, controlled, and gradual way in order to minimize fears.

“Environment affects socialization and it is vitally important to rear the young dogs in optimal settings, introducing them to a range of stimuli in a positive, controlled, and gradual way in order to minimize fears [84].”

• cites [84] Rooney, 2007, Behavioural and glucocorticoid responses of dogs (Canis familiaris) to kennelling: Investigating mitigation of stress by prior habituation, Physiol. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

When puppies are removed from their mothers as well as their familiar social and physical environment, a particularly sensitive phase is initiated since separation may cause behavioral and physiological distress and augment manifestations of anxiety and depression-like behaviors.

“When puppies are removed from their mothers as well as their familiar social and physical environment, a particularly sensitive phase is initiated since separation may cause behavioral and physiological distress and augment manifestations of anxiety and depression-like behaviors [73].”

• cites [73] McMillan, 2017, Behavioral and psychological outcomes for dogs sold as puppies through pet stores and/or born in commercial breeding establishments: Current knowledge and putative causes, J. Vet. Behav. sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

Early life is an important time of enhanced synaptic plasticity, where exposure to environmental stimuli has a profound influence on later behavior.

“Early life is an important time of enhanced synaptic plasticity, where exposure to environmental stimuli has a profound influence on later behavior [80].”

• cites [80] Casey, 2008, The effects of additional socialisation for kittens in a rescue centre on their behaviour and suitability as a pet, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Exploration, in the best sense, allows dogs to act autonomously and by their own initiative.

“Exploration, in the best sense, allows dogs to act autonomously and by their own initiative [63].”

• cites [63] Foltin, 2021, Exploration Behavior of Pet Dogs During Off-Leash Walks, J. Veter. Sci. Med. sourceNot checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

Dogs are motivated to use or enhance their cognitive skills and may suffer when prevented from doing so.

“Dogs are motivated to use or enhance their cognitive skills and may suffer when prevented from doing so.”

• cites [63] Foltin, 2021, Exploration Behavior of Pet Dogs During Off-Leash Walks, J. Veter. Sci. Med. sourceNot checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Foltin postulated that an owner who is supporting the dog's attempts to independently explore leads to more confident, self-reliant dogs displaying cognitive variance and becoming more autonomous.

“Foltin postulated that an owner who is supporting the dog′s attempts to independently explore leads to more confident, self-reliant dogs displaying cognitive variance and becoming more autonomous [63].”

• cites [63] Foltin, 2021, Exploration Behavior of Pet Dogs During Off-Leash Walks, J. Veter. Sci. Med. sourceNot checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

Exploratory behavior is considered an aspect of sensory processing involved in investigating novel stimuli, rather than an instinctive behavior, and partially depends on the motor and spatial capabilities and on the motivation to explore.

“Exploratory behavior is considered an aspect of sensory processing involved in investigating novel stimuli, rather than an instinctive behavior [65] and partially depends on the motor and spatial capabilities and on the motivation to explore [66].”

• cites [65] Boulton, 1989, Exploration and its measurement: A psychopharmacological perspective, Psychopharmacology: Neuromethods sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [66] Caston, 1998, Role of the cerebellum in exploration behavior, Brain Res. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Cognition is a cause and consequence of welfare but can later affect cognitive functions.

“Cognition is a cause and consequence of welfare but can later affect cognitive functions [62].”

• cites [62] Franks, B. (2018). Cognition as a cause, consequence, and component of welfare. Advances in Agricultural Animal Welfare, Woodhead Publishing. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Higher basal oxytocin levels have been related to increased anxiety, relationship distress and higher stress vulnerability in humans.

“In fact, higher basal oxytocin levels have been related to increased anxiety [92], relationship distress [93] and higher stress vulnerability in humans [94].”

• cites [92] Taylor, 2006, Relation of oxytocin to psychological stress responses and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis activity in older women, Psychosom. Med. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [93] Turner, 1999, Preliminary research on plasma oxytocin in normal cycling women: Investigating emotion and interpersonal distress, Psychiatry sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [94] Glenk, 2020, Salivary cortisol responses to acute stress vary between allergic and healthy individuals: The role of plasma oxytocin, emotion regulation strategies, reported stress and anxiety, Stress sourceCheck pending

It may state two separate claims as one.

Recent data suggest that salivary oxytocin may, in fact, better reflect cerebrospinal fluid concentrations than plasma concentrations and, therefore, its scientific use is warranted.

“Recent data suggest that salivary oxytocin may, in fact, better reflect cerebrospinal fluid concentrations than plasma concentrations and, therefore, its scientific use is warranted [89].”

• cites [89] Martin, 2018, Oxytocin levels in saliva correlate better than plasma levels with concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients in neurocritical care, J. Neuroendocrinol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Early environmental experiences strongly influence the emotional stability of dogs and too much stress can cause pathologic difficulties rather than physical or psychological advantages.

“Early environmental experiences strongly influence the emotional stability of dogs and too much stress can cause pathologic difficulties rather than physical or psychological advantages [79].”

• cites [79] Battaglia, 2009, Periods of Early Development and the Effects of Stimulation and Social Experiences in the Canine, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Puppies are not socially, neurologically, or developmentally mature enough to participate in any AAI setting as they have not yet developed strategies to react to stressful situations.

“Therefore, puppies are not socially, neurologically, or developmentally mature enough to participate in any AAI setting as they have not yet developed strategies to react to stressful situations [82].”

• cites [82] Schmidt, 2019, Evidence against conflict monitoring and adaptation, Psychon. Bull. Rec. sourceNot checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

Older animals naturally become less resilient, need more time to recover from stress, and thus, may not be as adept at managing social situations.

“Older animals naturally become less resilient, need more time to recover from stress, and thus, may not be as adept at managing social situations [71,72].”

• cites [71] Mongillo, 2015, Validation of a selection protocol of dogs involved in Animal Assisted Intervention, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [72] Roth, 2015, Assessing companion dog behavior in a social setting, J. Vet. Behav. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Animal Assisted Intervention International Standards (2019) of Practice set forth that the relationship between the human partner and the dog should be one of secure attachment where the dog may rely on their human partner to provide a safe base to obtain their needs and to explore their external environment.

“The Animal Assisted Intervention International Standards (2019) of Practice set forth that the relationship between the human partner and the dog should be one of secure attachment where the dog may rely on their human partner to provide a safe base to obtain their needs and to explore their external environment [9].”

• cites [9] Animal-Assisted Intervention International (AAII) (2021, April 05). Animal-Assisted Intervention International Standards of Practice. Available online: https://aai-int.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/02/AAII-Standards-of-Practice.pdf.Not checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

The development of the stress system plays a crucial part in shaping its function during adulthood and impacts stress resilience and vulnerability to stress-related disorders later in life.

“The development of the stress system plays a crucial part in shaping its function during adulthood and impacts stress resilience and vulnerability to stress-related disorders later in life [81].”

• cites [81] Huber, 2020, How Dogs Perceive Humans and How Humans Should Treat Their Pet Dogs: Linking Cognition with Ethics, Front. Psychol. sourceNot checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Previous studies have shown that oxytocin levels rise during affiliate human-dog interactions.

“Previous studies have shown that oxytocin levels rise during affiliate human–dog interactions.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Puppies are not yet fully developed, physically or mentally, and their social skills are shaped and continuously reinforced by internal and external processes.

“Additionally, puppies are not yet fully developed, physically or mentally, and their social skills are shaped and continuously reinforced by internal and external processes.”