Student or educator? Sign up with your school email and get 6 months of Pro free.
CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 694

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 18 of the 18 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Paradoxical Leader Behaviors in People Management: Antecedents and Consequences

Zhang, Yan, Waldman, David A., Han, Yu-Lan, Li, Xiao-Bei·2015·Academy of Management Journal
DOI 10.5465/amj.2012.0995
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

As organizational environments become increasingly dynamic, complex, and competitive, leaders are likely to face intensified contradictory, or seemingly paradoxical, demands. We develop the construct of “paradoxical leader behavior” in people management, which refers to seemingly competing, yet interrelated, behaviors to meet structural and follower demands simultaneously and over time. In Study 1, we develop a measure of paradoxical leader behavior in people management using five samples from China. Confirmatory factor analyses support a multidimensional measure of paradoxical leader behavior with five dimensions: (1) combining self-centeredness with other-centeredness; (2) maintaining both distance and closeness; (3) treating subordinates uniformly, while allowing individualization; (4) enforcing work requirements, while allowing flexibility; and (5) maintaining decision control, while allowing autonomy. In Study 2, we examine the antecedents and consequences of paradoxical leader behavior in people management with a field sample of 76 supervisors and 516 subordinates from 6 firms. We find that the extent to which supervisors engage in holistic thinking and have integrative complexity is positively related to their paradoxical behavior in managing people, which, in turn, is associated with increased proficiency, adaptivity, and proactivity among subordinates.

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.5465/amj.2012.0995

Cites

18 of 18 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Show all 18 references

Research works printed but not linked: 111

  1. Ambrose M. L., 2003, Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 295, 10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.295 · DOI · Paper page
  2. Antonakis J., 2002, Leadership Quarterly, 13, 673, 10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00155-8 · DOI · Paper page
  3. Baker-Brown G., 1992, Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis, 401, 10.1017/CBO9780511527937.029 · DOI · Paper page
  4. Bass B. M., 1995, MLQ multifactor leadership questionnaire for research
  5. Bliese P., 2000, Multi-level theory, research, and methods in organizations, 349
  6. Bligh M. C., 2006, Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21, 296, 10.1108/02683940610663105 · DOI · Paper page
  7. Bobko P., 1985, Academy of Management Review, 10, 99, 10.5465/amr.1985.4277357 · DOI
  8. Boies K., 2006, Leadership Quarterly, 17, 246, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.02.004 · DOI · Paper page
  9. Bollen K. A., 1989, Structural equations with latent variables, 10.1002/9781118619179 · DOI · Paper page
  10. Brislin R. W., 1980, Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Methodology, vol. 2, 389
  11. Brutus S., 2003, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 11, 313, 10.1111/j.0965-075X.2003.00254.x · doi:10.1111/j.0965-075x.2003.00254.x
  12. Cameron K. S., 1999, Diagnosing and changing organizational culture
  13. Capelli P., 1991, Research in Organizational Behavior, 13, 55
  14. Chen M.-J., 2002, Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19, 179, 10.1023/A:1016235517735 · DOI · Paper page
  15. Chen M.-J., 2008, Journal of Management Inquiry, 17, 288, 10.1177/1056492607312577 · DOI · Paper page
  16. Chen X.-P., 2011, Management and Organization Review, 7, 353, 10.1111/j.1740-8784.2011.00215.x · DOI
  17. Cheng B. S., 2000, Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, 14, 3
  18. Choi I., 2000, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 890, 10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.890 · DOI
  19. Courtright J. A., 1989, Academy of Management Journal, 32, 773, 10.2307/256568 · DOI · Paper page
  20. Day D. V., 2004, Leadership Quarterly, 15, 857, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.09.001 · DOI · Paper page
  21. De Jong A., 2004, Decision Sciences, 35, 457, 10.1111/j.0011-7315.2004.02513.x · DOI · Paper page
  22. Denis J., 2012, Academy of Management Annals, 6, 211, 10.1080/19416520.2012.667612 · doi:10.1080/19416520.2012.667612 · Paper page
  23. Denison D. R., 1995, Organization Science, 6, 524, 10.1287/orsc.6.5.524 · DOI · Paper page
  24. DeRue D. S., 2010, Academy of Management Review, 35, 627, 10.5465/AMR.2010.53503267 · DOI · Paper page
  25. Donaldson L., 1996, Four positivist organization theory, 10.4135/9781446280331 · doi:10.4135/9781446280331
  26. Dorfman P. W., 1988, Advances in International Comparative Management, 3, 127
  27. Evans P. A. L., 2000, Management 21C: New visions for the new millennium, 66
  28. Fang T., 2005, International Studies of Management and Organization, 35, 71, 10.1080/00208825.2005.11043743 · DOI · Paper page
  29. Fang T., 2010, Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 27, 155, 10.1007/s10490-009-9134-7 · DOI · Paper page
  30. Fang T., 2012, Management and Organization Review, 8, 25, 10.1111/j.1740-8784.2011.00221.x · DOI · Paper page
  31. Farh J. L., 2007, Academy of Management Journal, 50, 715, 10.5465/AMJ.2007.25530866 · DOI · Paper page
  32. Feldman S. P., 1989, Journal of Management Studies, 26, 83, 10.1111/j.1467-6486.1989.tb00719.x · DOI
  33. Fifić M., 2010, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36, 1290
  34. Ford J. D., 1977, Academy of Management Review, 2, 561, 10.5465/amr.1977.4406731 · doi:10.5465/amr.1977.4406731 · Paper page
  35. Gibson C. B., 2004, Academy of Management Journal, 47, 209, 10.2307/20159573 · DOI · Paper page
  36. Graen G. B., 1987, Research in Organizational Behavior, 9, 175
  37. Handy C., 1994, The age of paradox
  38. Hoch J. E., 2013, Human Resource Management Review, 23, 114, 10.1016/j.hrmr.2012.06.007 · DOI · Paper page
  39. Hofmann D. A., 1998, Journal of Management, 24, 623, 10.1177/014920639802400504 · doi:10.1177/014920639802400504 · Paper page
  40. Hooijberg R., 1996, Human Relations, 49, 917, 10.1177/001872679604900703 · DOI · Paper page
  41. Howell J. M., 2005, Leadership Quarterly, 16, 273, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.01.004 · DOI · Paper page
  42. Jarvis C., 2003, Journal of Consumer Research, 30, 199, 10.1086/376806 · DOI · Paper page
  43. Jones T. M., 2007, Academy of Management Review, 32, 137, 10.5465/AMR.2007.23463924 · DOI · Paper page
  44. Judge T. A., 2003, Personnel Psychology, 56, 303, 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00152.x · DOI · Paper page
  45. Judge T. A., 2009, Leadership Quarterly, 20, 855, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.09.004 · DOI · Paper page
  46. Kaiser R. B., 2005, Consulting Psychology Journal: Research and Practice, 57, 235, 10.1037/1065-9293.57.4.235 · DOI
  47. Kaiser R. B., 2007, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15, 40, 10.1111/j.1468-2389.2007.00366.x · DOI
  48. Kelleher H., 1997, Leader to Leader, 4, 20, 10.1002/ltl.40619970408 · doi:10.1002/ltl.40619970408
  49. Khandwalla P. N., 1976, Organization and Administrative Sciences, 7, 21
  50. Koo J., 2002, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 46, 286, 10.1177/0022002702046002006 · doi:10.1177/0022002702046002006
  51. Koo M., 2005, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1264, 10.1177/0146167205274692 · DOI
  52. Kreiner G. E., 2006, Academy of Management Journal, 49, 1031, 10.5465/amj.2006.22798186 · DOI · Paper page
  53. Lawrence K. A., 2009, Leadership Quarterly, 20, 87, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.01.014 · DOI · Paper page
  54. Lee Y. T., 2000, American Psychologist, 55, 1065, 10.1037/0003-066X.55.9.1065 · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.9.1065
  55. Lee Y. T., 2008, Leadership and management in China: Philosophies, theories, and practices, 83, 10.1017/CBO9780511753763.005 · DOI
  56. Lewis M. W., 2000, Academy of Management Review, 25, 760, 10.5465/amr.2000.3707712 · doi:10.5465/amr.2000.3707712 · Paper page
  57. Li P. P., 1998, Organization Studies, 19, 829, 10.1177/017084069801900506 · DOI
  58. Li P. P., 2012, Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 29, 849, 10.1007/s10490-011-9250-z · DOI · Paper page
  59. Li P. P., 2012, Management and Organization Review, 8, 7, 10.1111/j.1740-8784.2012.00292.x · DOI
  60. Lubatkin M. H., 2006, Journal of Management, 32, 646, 10.1177/0149206306290712 · DOI · Paper page
  61. Lüscher L. S., 2008, Academy of Management Journal, 51, 221, 10.5465/AMJ.2008.31767217 · DOI · Paper page
  62. Maccoby M., 2004, Harvard Business Review, 82, 92
  63. Mael F., 1992, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 103, 10.1002/job.4030130202 · DOI · Paper page
  64. Margolis J. D., 2003, Administrative Science Quarterly, 48, 268, 10.2307/3556659 · DOI · Paper page
  65. Masuda T., 2001, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 922, 10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.922 · DOI · Paper page
  66. Meyer J. P., 1993, Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 538, 10.1037/0021-9010.78.4.538 · DOI · Paper page
  67. Murphy P. R., 1999, The changing nature of work performance, 325
  68. Ouchi W. G., 1978, Academy of Management Journal, 21, 173, 10.2307/255753 · DOI · Paper page
  69. Paine L. S., 2010, Harvard Business Review, 88, 103
  70. Parker S. K., 2006, Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 636, 10.1037/0021-9010.91.3.636 · DOI · Paper page
  71. Pawar B. S., 1997, Academy of Management Review, 22, 80, 10.5465/amr.1997.9707180260 · doi:10.5465/amr.1997.9707180260 · Paper page
  72. Pearce C. L., 2003, Shared leadership: Reframing the how's and whys of leadership, 1, 10.4135/9781452229539 · DOI · Paper page
  73. Peng K., 1999, American Psychologist, 54, 741, 10.1037/0003-066X.54.9.741 · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.9.741 · Paper page
  74. Peterson R. S., 1998, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 73, 272, 10.1006/obhd.1998.2763 · DOI
  75. Pillai R., 1995, Academy of Management Proceedings, 332, 10.5465/AMBPP.1995.17536616 · DOI
  76. Pillai R., 1998, Journal of Management, 24, 643
  77. Porter L. W., 2006, Leadership Quarterly, 17, 559, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.002 · DOI · Paper page
  78. Pulakos E. D., 2000, Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 612, 10.1037/0021-9010.85.4.612 · DOI · Paper page
  79. Quinn R. E., 1988, Paradox and transformation: Toward a theory of change in organization and management
  80. Rich B. L., 2010, Academy of Management Journal, 53, 617, 10.5465/AMJ.2010.51468988 · DOI · Paper page
  81. Rodan S., 2004, Strategic Management Journal, 25, 541, 10.1002/smj.398 · DOI · Paper page
  82. Sagie A., 1997, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46, 387
  83. Scandura T. A., 1984, Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 428, 10.1037/0021-9010.69.3.428 · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.3.428 · Paper page
  84. Shamir B., 1995, Leadership Quarterly, 6, 19, 10.1016/1048-9843(95)90003-9 · DOI · Paper page
  85. Shamir B., 1999, Leadership Quarterly, 10, 257, 10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00014-4 · DOI · Paper page
  86. Shamir B., 1993, Organization Science, 4, 577, 10.1287/orsc.4.4.577 · DOI · Paper page
  87. Smith W. K., 2011, Academy of Management Review, 36, 381
  88. Smith W. K., 2005, Organization Science, 16, 522, 10.1287/orsc.1050.0134 · DOI · Paper page
  89. Snijders T. A. B., 1999, Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling
  90. Srivastava A., 2006, Academy of Management Journal, 49, 1239, 10.5465/amj.2006.23478718 · DOI · Paper page
  91. Suedfeld P., 1992, Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis, 393, 10.1017/CBO9780511527937.028 · DOI · Paper page
  92. Sundaramurthy C., 2003, Academy of Management Review, 28, 397, 10.5465/amr.2003.10196737 · doi:10.5465/amr.2003.10196737 · Paper page
  93. Tadmor C. T., 2012, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 520, 10.1037/a0029360 · DOI · Paper page
  94. Tadmor C. T., 2009, Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 40, 105, 10.1177/0022022108326279 · DOI · Paper page
  95. Tetlock P. E., 1994, Journal of Social Psychology, 66, 115
  96. Tetlock P. E., 1993, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 500, 10.1037/0022-3514.64.3.500 · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.3.500 · Paper page
  97. Tsui A. S., 1997, Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1089, 10.2307/256928 · DOI · Paper page
  98. Uhl-Bien M., 2007, Leadership Quarterly, 18, 298, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002 · DOI · Paper page
  99. Van de Ven A. H., 1988, Paradox and transformation: Toward a theory of change in organization and management, 19
  100. Vera D., 2004, Academy of Management Review, 29, 222, 10.5465/amr.2004.12736080 · DOI · Paper page
  101. Vos M. W., 2012, Individual differences in self-construal: The development of a measure of personal, relational and collective self
  102. Vroom V. H., 2007, American Psychologist, 62, 17, 10.1037/0003-066X.62.1.17 · DOI · Paper page
  103. Waldman D. A., 2001, Academy of Management Journal, 44, 134, 10.2307/3069341 · DOI · Paper page
  104. Wang H., 2002, Paper presented at the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) Conference
  105. Wong E. M., 2011, Academy of Management Journal, 54, 1207, 10.5465/amj.2008.0762 · DOI · Paper page
  106. Yagil D., 1998, Leadership Quarterly, 9, 161, 10.1016/S1048-9843(98)90003-0 · DOI
  107. Yukl G., 2010, Leadership in organizations
  108. Yukl G., 2004, Flexible leadership: Creating value by balancing multiple challenges and choices
  109. Zhang Y., 2013, Leadership Quarterly, 24, 534, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.03.007 · DOI
  110. Zhang Z., 2014, Management and Organization Review, 10, 199
  111. Zhang Z., 2012, Personnel Psychology, 65, 49, 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01238.x · DOI · Paper page

Cited by

See all 694

Metadata

Authors
Zhang, Y., Waldman, D. A., Han, Y.-L., & Li, X.-B.
Venue
Academy of Management Journal
Publisher
Academy of Management
Published
2015-04
Volume
58
Issue
2
Pages
538-566
ISSN
  • 0001-4273 (ISSN-L)
  • 1948-0989
DOI
10.5465/amj.2012.0995
OpenAlex
W1987565196
Cited by
694
References
18
FWCI
37.10
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

How to cite

Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.

This page
CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Paradoxical Leader Behaviors in People Management: Antecedents and Consequences. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.5465/amj.2012.0995
The paper
Zhang, Y., Waldman, D. A., Han, Y.-L., & Li, X.-B. (2015). Paradoxical Leader Behaviors in People Management: Antecedents and Consequences. Academy of Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2012.0995

Data sources

Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.

Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).

Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.