Potential of microalgae as a sustainable feed ingredient for aquaculture
Open accessAbstract
An increase in fish consumption, combined with a decrease in wild fish harvest, is driving the aquaculture industry at rapid pace. Today, farmed seafood accounts for about half of all global seafood demand for human consumption. As the aquaculture industry continues to grow, so does the market for aquafeed. Currently, some of the feed ingredients are coming from low-value forage fishes (fish meal) and terrestrial plants. The production of fish meal can't be increased as it would affect the sustainability and ecosystem of the ocean. Similarly, increasing the production of terrestrial plant-based feed leads to deforestation and increased freshwater use. Hence, alternative and environmentally sustainable sources of feed ingredients need to be developed. Microalgae biomasses represent potential feed source ingredients as the cell metabolites of these microorganisms contain a blend of essential amino acids, healthy triglycerides as fat, vitamins, and pigments. In addition to serving as bulk ingredient in aquafeed, their unique array of bioactive compounds can increase the survivability of farmed species, improve coloration and quality of fillet. Microalgae has the highest areal biomass productivities among photosynthetic organisms, including fodder crops, and thus has a high commercial potential. Also, microalgal production has a low water and arable-land footprint, making microalgal-based feed environmentally sustainable. This review paper will explore the potential of producing microalgae biomass as an ingredient of aquaculture feed.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that microalgae biomass is a promising sustainable aquafeed ingredient that can replace fish meal and soybean meal while supplying protein, lipids, pigments, vitamins, and bioactive compounds. It reports that low-to-moderate inclusion often maintains or improves fish growth and feed conversion, while high inclusion can reduce growth and production cost remains a major barrier.
Key findings
- Low-to-moderate microalgae inclusion (2–10%) generally gave weight gain similar to or better than control diets; cited examples include 31% higher weight gain in Atlantic salmon fed 5% *Schizochytrium* sp. oil, 30% higher weight gain in post-larval Pacific white shrimp fed 0.75% *Tetraselmis suecica*, and 69%, 58%, and 46% higher weight gains in Nile tilapia fed 15% *Chlorella* sp., 14% defatted *Nannochloropsis oculata* plus *Schizochytrium* sp., and 10% *N. oculata*, respectively.
- Feed conversion ratio was not affected or was reduced at low-to-moderate microalgae levels; a 24% FCR reduction occurred with 0.5% *Tetraselmis suecica* in post-larval Pacific white shrimp, and a 30% reduction occurred with 15% *Chlorella* sp. in Nile tilapia. Feed intake was comparable to control up to 15% microalgae, while >25% algal content suggested starvation in Atlantic cod.
- High microalgae concentrations generally >15% could reduce growth; >30% *Arthospira* biomass decreased growth in silver seabream, and 15–20% replacement of fish meal with mixed green microalgae and cyanobacteria decreased growth in rainbow trout.
- Cost and environmental estimates include microalgae-based tilapia feed at 0.68 $/kg versus fish meal at 1.5 $/kg, insect-based feed at 3–5.9 $/kg, and plant-based feed at 0.64 $/kg; microalgal biomass production costs ranged from 12.9 $/kg in a 1 ha raceway to 0.49 $/kg in a 405 ha algal turf system, and water footprints were 2857 L/kg for open raceway and 1618 L/kg for biofilm photobioreactor, with recycling reducing water footprint by 90%.
Methods
- This is a review paper, not a primary experimental study; it synthesizes published literature on microalgae as an aquaculture feed ingredient.
- The review covers nutritional composition, growth and weight gain, feed conversion ratio and feed intake, digestibility, fish health, fillet quality, feed preparation methods, production cost, environmental impact, safety, and challenges.
- Main analysis is narrative synthesis with supporting tables and cited studies; no systematic review or meta-analytic method is stated.
Limitations
- The paper states that major challenges include high production cost, low palatability, low digestibility due to non-starch substances and rigid cell walls, possible toxins, salt and trace-element accumulation, contamination risks in open ponds, and the need for more research to prove probiotic/prebiotic effects and characterize functional compounds.
- The paper also states that many pro/prebiotic effect studies are based on consortia of algae, bacteria, and other organisms rather than microalgae alone, and that more screening and large-scale optimization are needed.
- Evident from the text: as a review, it presents no new primary data, and its conclusions depend on cited studies with heterogeneous species, inclusion levels, processing methods, and outcomes.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 169 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingcitation
Diets containing up to 15% microalgae resulted in comparable feed intake to control.
“In general, the diets containing up to 15% microalgae resulted in comparable feed intake to control (Abdelghany et al., 2020;Gong et al., 2020;Walker and Berlinsky, 2011;Yu et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Findingcitation
Higher algal content (greater than 25%) suggested starvation in species like Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua.
“However higher algal content (greater than 25%) suggested starvation in species like Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua (Walker and Berlinsky, 2011).”
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- Findingcitation
Non-cellulosic species like Isochrysis sp. and Spirulina sp. had similar higher protein digestibility of 86%.
“Other hand non-cellulosic species like Isochrysis sp. and Spirulina sp. had similar higher protein digestibility of 86% (Niccolai et al., 2019;Skrede et al., 2011).”
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In a study involving the feeding of Nannochloropsis sp. biomass to Atlantic salmon, extrusion processed feed was shown to be more digestible than non-extrusion processed feed in terms of ash and dry matter.
“In a study involving the feeding of Nannochloropsis sp.biomass to Atlantic salmon, S. salar, extrusion processed feed was shown to be more digestible than non-extrusion processed feed in terms of ash and dry matter (Gong et al., 2018).”
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- Findingcitation
When aquatic species were fed a diet containing low and moderate concentrations (2-10%) of microalgae, the weight gain was similar to or even better than that of control.
“When aquatic species were fed a diet containing low and moderate concentrations (2-10%) of microalgae, the weight gain was similar to or even better than that of control (Table 4).”
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- Findingcitation
Diets containing enzymatically processed Nannochloropsis oceanica and physically processed Chlorella vulgaris and Tetraselmis sp. had higher protein and energy digestibility compared to non-treated control.
“Diets containing enzymatically processed Nannochloropsis oceanica and physically processed Chlorella vulgaris and Tetraselmis sp. had higher protein and energy digestibility compared to non-treated control (Batista et al., 2020b).”
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- Findingcitation
In a study involving various alternative feeds, omega-3 fatty acid-rich microalgae were found to be a suitable substitute for lipids in feed, as well as fish oil.
“In a study involving various alternative feeds, omega-3 fatty acid-rich microalgae were found to be a suitable substitute for lipids in feed, as well as fish oil (Cottrell et al., 2020).”
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- Findingcitation
High microalgae concentrations in fish feed (generally greater than 15%) could reduce the growth rate and the fish weight.
“A high microalgae concentrations in fish feed (generally greater than 15%) could reduce the growth rate and the fish weight.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Protein digestibility of thick cellulosic cell-walled microalgal species including Chlorella sp., Desmodesmus sp., Nannochloropsis sp., and Tetraselmis sp. in aquatic species ranged 80-89%, 54-67%, 69-81%, and 70-73%, respectively.
“The protein digestibility of thick cellulosic cell-walled microalgal species including Chlorella sp., Desmodesmus sp., Nannochloropsis sp., and Tetraselmis sp. in aquatic species ranged 80-89%, 54-67%, 69-81%, and 70-73%, respectively (Gong et al., 2018;Moheimani et al., 2018;Niccolai et al., 2019;Skrede et al., 2011).”
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The feed conversion ratio in aquatic species was not affected or even considerably reduced when fed with a diet containing a low and moderate amount of microalgae (2-10%).
“Table 5 shows that the feed conversion ratio in aquatic species was not affected or even considerably reduced when fed with a diet containing a low and moderate amount of microalgae (2-10%).”
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- Findingcitation
Administration of Tetraselmis chuii, Nannochloropsis gaditana, and P. tricornutum orally enhanced the defence activity of gilthead seabream.
“In another study, administration of (Tetraselmis chuii, Nannochloropsis gaditana, and P. tricornutum) orally enhanced the defence activity of gilthead seabream (S. aurata) (Cerezuela et al., 2012).”
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- Findingcitation
Salmon filets produced from Schizochytrium limacinum were found to have the identical taste and odour as filets produced from conventional fish oil.
“Salmon filets produced from Schizochytrium limacinum were found to have the identical taste and odour as filets produced from conventional fish oil (Katerina et al., 2020).”
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- Findingcitation
Fish feed containing 5% Spirulina improved the texture and taste of Striped jack.
“In another study, the fish feed containing 5% Spirulina improved the texture and taste of Striped jack (Pseudocaranx dentex) (Watanabe, 1990).”
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- Findingcitation
Several studies have shown that the survivability of fish could be improved by feeding microalgae-containing diet.
“Several studies have shown that the survivability of fish could be improved by feeding microalgae-containing diet.”
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When 6-8% of fish meal was replaced with Chlorella vulgaris, postlarvae of Macrobrachium rosenbergii displayed improved immune response and survivability against Aeromonas hydrophila infection.
“When 6-8% of fish meal was replaced with Chlorella vulgaris, postlarvae of Macrobrachium rosenbergii displayed improved immune response (prophenol oxidase activity and total haemocyte count), and survivability against Aeromonas hydrophila infection (Maliwat et al., 2017).”
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- Findingcitation
The whole biomass of Spirulina platensis and Isochrysis galbana have been shown to promote the growth of beneficial bacteria in vitro and in vivo studies.
“On the other hand, the whole biomass of Spirulina platensis and Isochrysis galbana have been shown to promote the growth of beneficial bacteria in vitro and in vivo studies (Dineshbabu et al., 2019;Hemaiswarya et al., 2011).”
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The addition of a 1.2% Schizochytrium sp. meal to the diet influenced the gut microbiota, resulting in improved Nile tilapia health.
“The addition of a 1.2% Schizochytrium sp.meal to the diet influenced the gut microbiota, resulting in improved Nile tilapia health (Souza et al., 2020).”
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- Findingcitation
The inclusion of microalgae, including Pavlova sp., Chaetoceros sp., Nannochloropsis oculata, and Isochrysis sp., in feed increased the survivability of seahorses and oysters.
“The inclusion of microalgae, including Pavlova sp., Chaetoceros sp., Nannochloropsis oculata, and Isochrysis sp., in feed, the seahorses (Hippocampus reidi) and oysters (Pinctada margaritifera), increased their survivability (Martínez-Fernández and Southgate, 2007;Mélo et al., 2016).”
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- cites Mélo et al., 2016
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- Findingcitation
In gibel carp, extruded feeds displayed higher protein and dry matter digestibility than pelleted feeds.
“In another study involving gibel carp, the extruded feeds displayed higher protein and dry matter digestibility than the pelleted feeds (Shi et al., 2016).”
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- Findingcitation
The survival rate of L. vannamei shrimp increased when 1-2% of its feed was supplemented with Dunaliella salina.
“The survival rate of L. vannamei shrimp increased when 1-2% of its feed was supplemented with Dunaliella salina (Medina-Félix et al., 2014).”
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- Findingcitation
Microalgae have been shown to reduce gaping in the fillet.
“Microalgae have been shown to reduce gaping in the fillet.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
In Atlantic salmon, a 5% Schizochytrium sp. diet improved fillet quality by reducing gaping when compared to a control diet.
“In Atlantic salmon, a 5% Schizochytrium sp.diet improved fillet quality by reducing gaping when compared to a control diet (Kousoulaki et al., 2016).”
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- Findingown data
The water footprint of microalgae production is lower than that of plant and insect production.
“Fig. 2 shows that the water footprint of microalgae production is lower than that of plant and insect production.”
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Selection of robust species can overcome the problem of seasonal variations, as shown in the authors' group's recent study involving long-term semi-continuous cultivation of a halo-tolerant Tetraselmis sp. using recycled growth media.
“But the selection of robust species can overcome the above problem, as shown in our group's recent study involving long-term semi-continuous cultivation of a halo-tolerant Tetraselmis sp. using recycled growth media (Das et al., 2019a).”
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- Premisecitation
Demand for fish meal increased by 300% in the last ten years.
“The demand for fish meal -a key ingredient in feed has increased by 300% in the last ten years (Indexmundi, 2021) (Fig. 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Indexmundi, 2021
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- Interpretationreasoning
Microalgal-based feed is environmentally sustainable.
“making microalgal-based feed environmentally sustainable.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Microalgae biomass is a potential feed source ingredient because its cell metabolites contain essential amino acids, healthy triglycerides, vitamins, and pigments.
“Microalgae biomasses represent potential feed source ingredients as the cell metabolites of these microorganisms contain a blend of essential amino acids, healthy triglycerides as fat, vitamins, and pigments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Microalgae has the highest areal biomass productivities among photosynthetic organisms, including fodder crops.
“Microalgae has the highest areal biomass productivities among photosynthetic organisms, including fodder crops, and thus has a high commercial potential.”
- Also stated in: § 2. Microalgae as an alternative to fish meal · plain
“Microalgae's net biomass productivity is higher than any other terrestrial plant or animal (Rizwan et al., 2018).”
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- Also stated in: § 2. Microalgae as an alternative to fish meal · plain
- Premisecitation
Plant-based feed sources have a significant presence of anti-nutritive factors and indigestible fibers.
“one of the major disadvantages of these plant-based sources is the significant presence of ant-nutritive factors and indigestible fibers (Kokou and Fountoulaki, 2018).”
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Nearly 68% of commercial species rely on fish feed.
“Nearly 68% of commercial species rely on fish feed (Tacon, 2020).”
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- Premisecitation
Fish meal production cannot be increased without affecting ocean sustainability and ecosystem.
“The production of fish meal can't be increased as it would affect the sustainability and ecosystem of the ocean.”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
“pelagic fish are the source of fish feed, and their stocks are depleting as a result of the El Nino effect (Bakun and Broad, 2003) and unsustainable practice of overfishing.”
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- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
- Premisecitation
Nutrient limitation increases carbohydrate and lipid content in microalgae.
“Moreover, nutrient limitation have been shown to further increase the carbohydrate and lipid content in microalgae (Chen et al., 2017;Nagappan et al., 2019aNagappan et al., , 2019b)).”
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- cites Nagappan et al., 2019a
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- Interpretationnone given
Microalgae have the right blend of protein, lipid, and carbohydrate appropriate to protect fish health.
“The main reason for the microalgae promise is that it has the right blend of protein, lipid, and carbohydrateappropriate to protect the fish health.”
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Microalgae contain an abundance of organic minerals.
“Microalgae contain an abundance of organic minerals (Mustafa, 1995).”
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- Premisecitation
Microalgae's net biomass productivity is higher than any other terrestrial plant or animal.
“Microalgae's net biomass productivity is higher than any other terrestrial plant or animal (Rizwan et al., 2018).”
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- Premisecitation
Fiber content in microalgae ranges from 5% to 18%.
“The content of fiber a complex carbohydrate in microalgae ranges from 5% to 18% (Matos et al., 2016).”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Large-scale production of microalgae using non-arable land or non-potable water places no demand on existing land use and freshwater supply.
“Therefore, there is no demand on the existing patterns (or practices) of land use on agriculture and freshwater supply for large-scale production of microalgae using non-arable land or non-potable water.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
With minerals-rich microalgal biomass, the disadvantage of mineral leaching before fish ingestion could be avoided.
“With minerals-rich microalgal biomass, the disadvantage of mineral leaching before fish ingestion could be avoided.”
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Non-starch polysaccharides (fiber) found in microalgae are generally indigestible.
“Non-starch polysaccharides (fiber; e.g., pectin, algenan, cellulose, etc.,) found in microalgae are generally indigestible (Gong et al., 2018).”
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- Premisecitation
Tetraselmis subcordiformis, Chlamydomonas rheinhardtii and Chlorella vulgaris have higher starch content (30-49%) than other microalgae.
“Species including Tetraselmis subcordiformis, Chlamydomonas rheinhardtii and Chlorella vulgaris comparatively have higher starch content (30-49%) than other microalgae (Dragone et al., 2011;Yao et al., 2012).”
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Microalgae are being investigated as a potential bulk-feed ingredient for fingerlings and adult fishes.
“However, in recent times, microalgae are being investigated as a potential bulk-feed ingredient for fingerlings and adult fishes (Hodar et al., 2020).”
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- Premisecitation
Microalgal pigments like astaxanthin could give attractive colour to fish, increasing their marketability.
“Microalgal pigments, like astaxanthin, also could give attractive colour to the fish -increasing their marketability (Posten and Schaub, 2009).”
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- Premisecitation
Microalgae such as Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Porphyridium, Isochrysis, and Nannochloropsis are high in methionine, which is often lacking in plant-based ingredients.
“For instance, microalgae such as Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Porphyridium, Isochrysis, and Nannochloropsis are high in methionine, which is often lacking in plant-based ingredients (Wan et al., 2019).”
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- Premiseown data
Microalgae are a rich source of protein and lipid compared to yeast and bacteria.
“Microlagae, in particular, are a rich source of protein and lipid when compared to other alternative ingredients such as yeast and bacteria (Table 2).”
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- Interpretationcitation
Cell disruption can increase the nutrient digestibility of microalgae.
“Cell disruption can increase the nutrient digestibility of microalgae.”
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- cites Batista et al., 2020b
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- Premisecitation
Starch content in microalgal species ranges from 7% to 45%.
“the content of starch -a readily digestibile carbohydrate in microalgal species ranges from 7% to 45% (Dragone et al., 2011).”
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- Premisecitation
The recalcitrant cell wall of microalgae is a major factor that can impair nutritional digestibility in monogastric animals like fish and shrimp.
“The recalcitrant cell wall of microalgae is another major factor that can impair nutritional digestibility in monogastric animals like fish and shrimp (Niccolai et al., 2019).”
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- Premisecitation
The level of lipid in microalgae is generally high compared to other species, at 20-60%.
“The level of lipid in microalgae is generally high compared to other species (20-60%) (Ferreira et al., 2019;Madeira et al., 2017;Nagappan et al., 2020).”
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Feeding of cell wall compounds like glucans, peptidoglycans, lipopolysaccharides, fucoidan, chitin, and whole algae can enhance the immune system in aquatic species.
“Feeding of cell wall compounds like glucans, peptidoglycans, lipopolysaccharides, fucoidan, chitin, and whole algae can enhance the immune system in aquatic species (Dawood et al., 2018).”
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- Premisecitation
Adding mineral-rich microalgae to salmon diets increases the fish's texture and flavour.
“According to a study, adding mineral-rich microalgae to salmon diets increases the fish's texture and flavour (Guedes et al., 2015).”
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- Premisecitation
Microalgae have a mineral composition ranging from 2.2% to 4.8% of total dry weight.
“Also, microalgae have a mineral composition ranging from 2.2% to 4.8% of total dry weight (Guedes et al., 2015).”
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- Interpretationcitation
Due to variations in eating patterns and digestive physiologies among various fish species, the nutritional benefits of a microalga in one target animal species do not generally guarantee the same in others.
“Due to variations in eating patterns and digestive physiologies among various fish species, the nutritional benefits of a microalga in one target animal species do not generally guarantee the same in others.”
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- Premisecitation
When a fish consumes algal cells, the microbiome in the intestine digests the algal cell, releasing probiotic materials that inhibit pathogens.
“When a fish consumes algal cells, the microbiome in the intestine digests the algal cell, releasing probiotic materials that inhibit pathogens (Austin, 2006;Ghanbari et al., 2015;Nayak, 2010).”
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Vegetable oils from canola, palm, and soybean seeds lack PUFAs or contain them in very low levels.
“In general, vegetable oils from canola, palm, and soybean seeds lack PUFAs or may contain these in very low levels (Hashempour-Baltork et al., 2016).”
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Microalgae can accumulate high levels of various vitamins, including vitamin E.
“Microalgae can accumulate high levels of various vitamins, including type E (Madeira et al., 2017).”
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Microalgae are known to have probiotic effects on fishes.
“Microalgae are known to have probiotic effects on fishes.”
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PUFA in these microalgal species ranges from as low as 2.2% to as high as 37%.
“PUFA in these microalgal species ranges from as low as 2.2% to high as 37% (Ferreira et al., 2019).”
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- Premisecitation
Organic minerals such as selenium, glutamate, vitamin E, and PUFA levels greatly minimize gaping in fish.
“Organic minerals such as selenium, glutamate (a functional amino acid), vitamin E, and PUFA levels have been shown to greatly minimize gaping (Tavakoli et al., 2021).”
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- Premisecitation
Species such as Monodus sp., Aurantiochytrium sp., Thraustochytrium sp., Thalassiosira sp., Isochrysis sp., Phaeodactylum sp., and Pavlova sp. contain a significant amount of PUFA.
“Also, species like Monodus sp., Aurantiochytrium sp., Thraustochytrium sp., Thalassiosira sp., Isochrysis sp., Phaeodactylum sp., and Pavlova sp.contain a significant amount of PUFA (Lu et al., 2021).”
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- Premisecitation
Calcium, potassium, iron, copper, sodium, sulfur, zinc, phosphorous, and magnesium are abundant in microalgae.
“Calcium, potassium, iron, copper, sodium, sulfur, zinc, phosphorous, and magnesium are all abundant in microalgae (Dineshbabu et al., 2019).”
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- Premisecitation
Extrusion can break the microalgae's recalcitrant cell wall, improving nutrient availability and digestibility.
“Extrusion can break the microalgae's recalcitrant cell wall, improving nutrient availability and digestibility (Gong et al., 2018).”
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- Premisecitation
The coloration of Koi, Red tilapia, Striped jack, yellow catfish, and Black tiger prawn was enhanced by Spirulina sp.
“The coloration of several species such as Koi, Red tilapia, Striped jack, yellow catfish, and Black tiger prawn was enhanced by Spirulina sp.(Ansarifard et al., 2018;Dineshbabu et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2021;Nur-E-Borhan, 1993).”
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- cites Dineshbabu et al., 2019 source
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- cites Liu et al., 2021
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Commercially, salmon is fed with thraustochytrid Schizochytrium sp. solely for PUFA.
“Commercially salmon is fed with thraustochytrid Schizochytrium sp.solely for PUFA (Ren et al., 2010).”
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Both whole cell Haematococcus pluvialis and extracted astaxanthin are used as feed additives, at around 1.5%, in the aquaculture industry.
“Both whole cell H. pluvialis and extracted astaxanthin are used as feed additives (1.5% in range) in the aquaculture industry (Chen et al., 2017).”
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- Premisecitation
Thraustochytrids were used to enrich zooplankton and fed to finfish larvae.
“Also, thraustochytrids were used to enrich zooplankton and fed to finfish larvae (Barclay and Zeller, 1996).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Barclay and Zeller, 1996
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
If a high lipid feed (>30%) is needed, as in salmon feed, oil has to be coated on the dried pellet using a vacuum coating process.
“If a high lipid feed (>30%) is needed, as in the case of salmon feed, then oil has to be coated on the dried pellet using a vacuum coating process (Samuelsen et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Samuelsen et al., 2018 source
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- Premisecitation
With a longer time of storage, the reactivation of microalgal paste cells will be delayed.
“One issue that has to be resolved in paste preservation is that with a longer time of storage, the reactivation of cells will be delayed (McCausland et al., 1999;Raja et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites McCausland et al., 1999 source
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- cites Raja et al., 2018
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- Premisecitation
A diet containing 2.5% Phaeodactylum tricornutum, a diatom having high fucoxanthin content, gives gilthead seabream a bright yellow pigmentation.
“A diet containing 2.5% Phaeodactylum tricornutum, a diatom having high fucoxanthin content, has been shown to give gilthead seabream a bright yellow pigmentation (Ribeiro et al., 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ribeiro et al., 2017 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The biochemical properties of microalgae can affect the extrusion process.
“The biochemical properties of microalgae can affect the extrusion process (Gong et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gong et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The longer the shelf life of a concentrate, the more likely it is to be marketed and used in aquaculture.
“The longer the shelf life of a concentrate, the more likely it is to be marketed and used in aquaculture (Sales and de Souza-Santos, 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sales and de Souza-Santos, 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
To prolong the shelf life of microalgae paste, investigators have used low-temperature preservation, freezing, vacuum packaging, and lyophilisation of biomass, as well as antioxidants, food acids, and vitamins.
“To prolong the shelf life of microalgae paste, investigators have used low-temperature preservation, freezing, vacuum packaging, and lyophilisation of biomass, as well as antioxidants, food acids, and vitamins (Amouzad Khalili et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Amouzad Khalili et al., 2019 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
In green water and poly-aquaculture, the energy-intensive harvesting step is eliminated by growing microalgae directly in the ponds where the fish are raised.
“Here, the energy-intensive harvesting step is eliminated by growing microalgae directly in the ponds where the fish are raised.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
When algal paste was stored in a refrigerator (5-10°C) or in a biofreezer (20-22°C) without cryoprotectant but with NaOH added, it was able to revive even after 18 months.
“When the algal paste was stored in a refrigerator (5-10 • C) or in a biofreezer (20-22 • C) without cryoprotectant but with NaOH added, it was able to revive even after 18 months (Jereos- Aujero and Millamena, 1981).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jereos- Aujero and Millamena, 1981
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Compared to live microalgal diets, there was no nutrient loss during the concentrating, transportation, and preservation of the Skeletonema costatum and Chaetoceros calcitrans algal pastes.
“When compared to live microalgal diets, there was no nutrient loss during the concentrating, transportation, and preservation of the Skeletonema costatum and Chaetoceros calcitrans algal pastes (McCausland et al., 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McCausland et al., 1999 source
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- Premisecitation
Chemical flocculation is unsuitable for microalgal feed because of the presence of chemical flocculants and co-precipitation of undesirable compounds along with microalgae.
“However, chemical flocculation is unsuitable for microalgal feed because of the presence of chemical flocculants and co-precipitation of undesirable compounds along with microalgae (Pugazhendhi et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pugazhendhi et al., 2019
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- Premisecitation
Algal pastes are used as a protein substitute in aquaculture to feed shrimps, larval fishes, zooplankton, and bivalves.
“Algal pastes are being used as a protein substitute in aquaculture to feed shrimps, larval fishes, zooplankton, and bivalves (Hemaiswarya et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hemaiswarya et al., 2011 source
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- Premisecitation
Tilapia, Silver carp, Catla, grass carp, and Rohu carp were found suitable to be grown in green water.
“Tilapia, Silver carp, Catla, grass carp, and Rohu carp were found suitable to be grown in green water (Muller-Feuga, 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Muller-Feuga, 2000 source
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- Premisecitation
Thraustochytrids are a rich source of PUFAs, especially omega-3 fatty acids.
“One of the rich sources of PUFAs, especially omega-3 fatty acids, are thraustochytrids (Leyland et al., 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Leyland et al., 2017 source
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- Premisecitation
The pigmentation of Showa koi was modified by supplementing the diet with 7.5% Spirulina platensis.
“In another study, the pigmentation of Showa koi was found to be modified by supplementing the diet with 7.5% Spirulina platensis (Sun et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sun et al., 2012 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The growth of microalgae in ponds can be aided by the use of fertilizers, waste, and other materials.
“The growth of microalgae in ponds can be aided by the use of fertilizers, waste, and other materials (Neori, 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Neori, 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Green water and poly-aquaculture techniques can help solve the problems associated with off-the-shelf feeds.
“Green water and poly-aquaculture techniques can help solve the problems associated with off-the-shelf feeds.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Harvesting is a very expensive step in the production of off-the-shelf feed.
- Premisecitation
Poly-aquaculture was demonstrated in a pilot study in Australia where phytoplankton was grown in nutrient-rich wastewater and fed to invertebrates of various trophic levels, such as sponges, annelid worms and bivalves, which were in turn used as animal feeds for shrimp.
“Poly-aquaculture was demonstrated in a pilot study in Australia where phytoplankton was grown in nutrient-rich wastewater and fed to invertebrates of various trophic levels, such as sponges, annelid worms and bivalves, which were in turn used as animal feeds for shrimp (Palmer, 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Palmer, 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Microalgal paste in dry, flocculated, microencapsulated, or cryopreserved forms is an alternative to fresh or live feed.
“Microalgal paste in dry, flocculated, microencapsulated, or cryopreserved forms is an alternative to a fresh or live feed (Raja et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Raja et al., 2018
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- Premisecitation
Yellow catfish fed with 4% defatted-Spirulina and 0.4% Spirulina-lipid-extract had significantly better skin colour than those fed with a control diet.
“In another study, the Yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) fed with 4% defatted-Spirulina and 0.4% Spirulina-lipid-extract had significantly better skin colour than those fed with a control diet (Liu et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Liu et al., 2021
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
In a photobioreactor, using artificial light rather than natural light (Dutch climate) can reduce costs slightly by 2-13%.
“Same study reported that in a photobioreactor, using artificial light rather than natural light (Dutch climate) can reduce costs slightly by 2-13%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Oostlander et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Using a thin layer cascade instead of an open raceway pond resulted in a 50% lower production cost for a similar plant size of 5 ha.
“The same study showed that using a thin layer cascade instead of an open raceway pond resulted in a 50% lower production cost for a similar plant size of 5 ha.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fernández et al., 2019
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Depending on the strain and the combination of unit operations, there could be a net positive greenhouse gas emission in microalgae biomass production.
“A number of unit processes are involved in the production of microalgae biomass; depending on the strain and the combination of these unit operations, there could be a net positive greenhouse gas emission (Kim et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kim et al., 2019 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Several strains (e.g., Tetraselmis sp., Picochlorum sp., Dunaliella sp.) could adapt to incremental salinity and maintain their biomass productivities over a wide salinity range.
“However, several strains (e.g., Tetraselmis sp., Picochlorum sp., Dunaliella sp.) could adapt to incremental salinity and maintain their biomass productivities over a wide salinity range (Das et al., 2019b;Pick, 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Das et al., 2019b
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- cites Pick, 2002
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Microalgae production using tubular photobioreactors, installed in a 1500 m2 greenhouse, was estimated to cost 50.5 $/kg.
“Microalgae production using tubular photobioreactors, installed in a 1500 m 2 greenhouse, was estimated to cost 50.5 $/kg (Oostlander et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Oostlander et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
By increasing the raceway reactor size to 5 ha, the cost of producing microalgae biomass can be reduced to 5.3 $/kg.
“However, by increasing the raceway reactor size to 5 ha, the cost of producing microalgae biomass can be reduced to 5.3 $/kg (Fernández et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fernández et al., 2019
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Using sodium bicarbonate salt as a carbon source for microalgae cultivation rather than carbon dioxide is an option to reduce global warming potential.
“Another option is to use sodium bicarbonate salt as a carbon source for microalgae cultivation rather than carbon dioxide (Kim et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kim et al., 2019 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Microalgae biomass production can be as low as 0.65 $/kg, according to a study conducted on a 405 ha open raceway pond.
“Microalgae biomass production can be as low as 0.65 $/kg, according to a study conducted on a 405 ha open raceway pond (Hoffman et al., 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hoffman et al., 2017 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
When wastewater is used to produce microalgal biomass, labor costs are reduced through automation, and revenue from wastewater treatment are factored in, the cost of producing microalgae is reduced by 74%.
“When wastewater is used to produce microalgal biomass, labor costs are reduced through automation, and revenue from wastewater treatment are factored in, the cost of producing microalgae is reduced by 74%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fernández et al., 2019
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Such halo-tolerant strains could significantly reduce the water footprint of microalgae production in open cultivation system.
“Such halo-tolerant strains could significantly reduce the water footprint of microalgae production in open cultivation system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The biomass production cost of a 405 ha algal turf system was estimated to be only 0.49 $/kg.
“The biomass production cost of a 405 ha algal turf system was estimated to be only 0.49 $/kg (Hoffman et al., 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hoffman et al., 2017 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The use of advanced control techniques such as model predictive control has been shown to significantly reduce carbon dioxide loss in the atmosphere.
“The use of advanced control techniques such as model predictive control, for example, has been shown to significantly reduce carbon dioxide loss in the atmosphere (García Sánchez et al., 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites García Sánchez et al., 2003 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
For a 5 ha thin-layer cascade, the final cost was estimated to be 0.71 $/kg of microalgal biomass.
“So, for a 5 ha thin-layer cascade, the final cost was estimated to be 0.71 $/kg of microalgal biomass (Fernández et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fernández et al., 2019
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Species growth was higher in green water than clear water (fed with fish meal), as seen in Asian tiger shrimp.
“Species growth was higher in green water than clear water (fed with fish meal), as seen in Asian tiger shrimp (Glencross et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Glencross et al., 2014 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Microalgae-based fish feed produced on a large scale (2.5 ha) had 20 times lower carbon footprint than fish feed produced on a pilot scale (0.024 ha).
“According to one study, microalgae-based fish feed produced on a large scale (2.5 ha) had 20 times lower carbon footprint than fish feed produced on a pilot scale (0.024 ha) (Taelman et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Taelman et al., 2013 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
A small-scale open raceway pond of 1 ha containing microalgae was estimated to have a production cost of 12.9 $/kg.
“A small-scale open raceway pond of 1 ha containing microalgae was estimated to have a production cost of 12.9 $/kg (Sui et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sui et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
In a photobioreactor of 25 m2, tubular reactors were 54-68% cheaper than bubble columns for microalgal biomass production.
“In case of photobioreactor (size of 25 m 2 ), tubular reactors were 54-68% cheaper than bubble columns for microalgal biomass production (Oostlander et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Oostlander et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Evaporation water loss could be as high as 2.0 cm day-1 from a 20 cm deep raceway pond.
“The evaporation water loss could be as high as 2.0 cm day -1 from a 20 cm deep raceway pond (Das et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Das et al., 2016
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Pathogen inhibition is higher in green water ponds than in clear water ponds.
“Pathogen inhibition is higher in green water ponds than in clear water ponds (Palmer et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Palmer et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The cost of microalgae-based feed was 0.68 $/kg.
“According to one study, the cost of microalgae-based feed was 0.68 $/kg (Sarker et al., 2020a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sarker et al., 2020a
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
When the growth media is recycled, the water footprint of microalgae can be reduced by 90%.
“For example, when the growth media is recycled, the water footprint of microalgae can be reduced by 90% (Pugazhendhi et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pugazhendhi et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Starch that could be digested well by fish could be accumulated in microalgae grown under nutritional stress or by two-stage cultivation.
“Starch that could be digested well by fish could be accumulated in microalgae grown under nutritional stress or by two-stage cultivation (Nagappan and Kumar, 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Nagappan and Kumar, 2021
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Pests, grazers, and pathogens pose constant contamination problems in large-scale production.
“Furthermore, pests, grazers, and pathogens pose constant contamination problems in large-scale production.(Hannon et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hannon et al., 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Pigments like carotenoids, which give microalgal functional properties like antioxidant activity to fishes, are easily degraded.
“Pigments like carotenoids, which give microalgal functional properties like antioxidant activity to fishes, are easily degraded (Chen et al., 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chen et al., 2017 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
In the case of rigid cell walls, mechanical methods can be used to break them down, increasing digestibility and exposing nutrients to the fish.
“In the case of rigid cell walls, mechanical methods can be used to break them down, increasing digestibility and exposing nutrients to the fish.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
FDA-USA has classified oil extracts from Crypthecodinium cohnii, Schizochytrium sp., and Ulkenia sp. and dried Spirulina platensis, Chlorella protothecoides, and Dunaliella bardawil as generally recognized as safe (GRAS).
“Moreover, FDA-USA has classified oil extracts from Crypthecodinium cohnii, Schizochytrium sp., and Ulkenia sp. and dried Spirulina platensis, Chlorella protothecoides, and Dunaliella bardawil as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) (Jha et al., 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jha et al., 2017 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The US-FDA already approved Haematococcus pluvialis for use as a colour enhancer in salmonids and shrimp feed.
“The US-FDA already approved Haematococcus pluvialis for use as a colour enhancer in salmonids and shrimp feed (Han et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Han et al., 2013 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Fish feed made from microalgae has a lot of potential to replace fish meal and soybean meal.
“Fish feed made from microalgae has a lot of potentials to replace fish meal and soybean meal.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Traditional fish feed comprising fish meal and soybean meal as bulk ingredient does not meet demand and is unsustainable.
- Rests on an assumption: Aquaculture products and aquafeed are in higher demand around the world.
- Rests on an assumption: Microalgae have a faster growth rate and the ability to grow and produce high-value products without the use of arable land and freshwater.
- Rests on an assumption: Microalgae contain functional compounds with activities such as prebiotics, probiotics, and disease resistance.
- Premisecitation
The European Union has approved Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Chlorella luteoviridis, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Chlorella vulgaris, Odontella aurita, and Tetraselmis chuii as foods or food ingredients under the Novel Food Catalogue.
“The European Union has approved Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Chlorella luteoviridis, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Chlorella vulgaris, Odontella aurita, and Tetraselmis chuii as foods or food ingredients under the Novel Food Catalogue (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationnone given
Any pretreatment techniques for cell rupture would incur additional costs for fish feed production.
“However, any pretreatment techniques for the cell rupture would incur additional costs for the fish feed production.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The high cost of production is one of the most significant problems with microalgae.
“The high cost of production is one of the most significant problems with microalgae.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fasaei et al., 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Several toxicological studies have shown that various microalgae are safe to use as feed supplements.
“Several toxicological studies have shown that various microalgae are safe to use as feed supplements (Dineshbabu et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Dineshbabu et al., 2019 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The European Union ratified algal oil and meals as salmon feed for commercial purposes in 2017.
“The European Union ratified algal oil and meals as salmon feed for commercial purposes in 2017 (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Some microalgae have been found to contain toxins that are harmful not only to fish but also to humans.
“Some microalgae have been found to contain toxins that are harmful not only to fish but also to humans (Caruana and Amzil, 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Caruana and Amzil, 2018
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Several microalgae have been deemed safe by the US-FDA and the European Food Safety Authority.
“Several microalgae have been deemed safe by the US-FDA (US Food drug administration) and the European Food Safety Authority.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Microalgae like Chlorella sp. and Nannochloropsis sp. have low digestibility due to the presence of non-starch substances and rigid cell walls.
“Microalgae like Chlorella sp., Nannochloropsis sp., etc., have low digestibility due to the presence of non-starch substances and rigid cell walls (Skrede et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skrede et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Chaetoceros gracilis, Isochrysis sp., Tetraselmis suecica, Skeletonema costatum, Pavlova lutheri, Dunaliella tertiolecta, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Nannochloropsis sp., and Chlorella sp. have so far not been reported to contain any toxins.
“Chaetoceros gracilis, Isochrysis sp., Tetraselmis suecica, Skeletonema costatum, Pavlova lutheri, Dunaliella tertiolecta, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Nannochloropsis sp., and Chlorella sp. have so far not been reported to contain any toxins (Enzing et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Enzing et al., 2014
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Many studies that have suggested a pro/prebiotic effect are based on a consortium of algae, bacteria, and other organisms rather than just microalgae.
“However, many studies that have suggested a pro/prebiotic effect are based on a consortium of algae, bacteria, and other organisms rather than just microalgae (Shah et al., 2018;Tacon, 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
One of the most significant obstacles to using microalgae as fish feed is the high cost of production.
“One of the most significant obstacles to using microalgae as fish feed is the high cost of production (Fasaei et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fasaei et al., 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
- May combine two claims. 31
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationEnzyme Bromelain improved the digestibility of Spirulina-based fish feed in Mozambique tilapia fingerlings, while papain and trypsin were less effective.
“While the enzyme Bromelain improved the digestibility of Spirulina-based fish feed in Mozambique tilapia fingerlings (Oreochromis mossambicus), other two enzymes (i.e., papain and trypsin) were found to be less effective (Sharma et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sharma et al., 2021 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationFish feed containing 2% Spirulina increased firmness, muscle quality, and fibrousness of Nile Tilapia.
“Fish feed containing 2% Spirulina increased the increased firmness, muscle quality, and fibrousness of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) (Mustafa, 1995).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mustafa, 1995
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMicroalgal production has a low water and arable-land footprint.
“Also, microalgal production has a low water and arable-land footprint, making microalgal-based feed environmentally sustainable.”
- Also stated in: § 2. Microalgae as an alternative to fish meal · plain
“Unlike land-based plants, there is no need for microalgae to grow in fertile land; further, microalgae can be cultivated using even sea-water or waste-water (Li et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li et al., 2019
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § 2. Microalgae as an alternative to fish meal · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCommercial species account for 70% of all fish in the aquaculture industry.
“Currently, commercial species account for 70% of all fish in the aquaculture industry (Tacon, 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tacon, 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPelagic fish stocks are depleting due to the El Nino effect and unsustainable overfishing.
“pelagic fish are the source of fish feed, and their stocks are depleting as a result of the El Nino effect (Bakun and Broad, 2003) and unsustainable practice of overfishing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bakun and Broad, 2003
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenMicroalgae's bioactive compounds can increase survivability of farmed species and improve coloration and quality of fillet.
“In addition to serving as bulk ingredient in aquafeed, their unique array of bioactive compounds can increase the survivability of farmed species, improve coloration and quality of fillet.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPlant proteins and animal by-products lack essential amino acids and minerals.
“Lack of essential amino acids and minerals in plant proteins and animal by-products (Shah et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shah et al., 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationUnlike plants, microalgal fiber lacks lignin and contains low hemicellulose, suggesting better digestibility.
“Unlike plants, microalgal fiber lack lignin and contain low hemicellulose suggesting better digestibility (Niccolai et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Niccolai et al., 2019 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMicroalgae have a variety of pigments with antioxidant properties, and some produce abundant vitamins and immunostimulants in their cells, which can contribute to the health of aquatic species.
“Microalgae also have a variety of pigments with antioxidant properties, and some microalgae produce abundant vitamins and immunostimulants in their cells, which can contribute to the health of aquatic species (Prabha et al., 2020;Zhou et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Prabha et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Zhou et al., 2019 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMicroalgae can be cultivated using sea-water or waste-water without needing fertile land.
“Unlike land-based plants, there is no need for microalgae to grow in fertile land; further, microalgae can be cultivated using even sea-water or waste-water (Li et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li et al., 2019
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premiseown dataMicroalgae have a well-balanced amino acid profile, obviating the need for high-cost amino acid supplements.
“Microlagae also have a well-balanced amino acid profile, obviating the need for high-cost amino acid supplements in the diet (Table 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Table 3
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPUFA-rich microalgae include Schizochytrium and Crypthecodinium producing DHA, Phaeodactylum, Nannochloropsis, Isochrysis, Nitzschia, and Diacronema producing EPA, Porphyridium producing arachidonic acid, and Desmodesmus sp. producing alpha-linolenic acid.
“PUFA rich microalgae include Schizochytrium and Crypthecodinium, which produces DHA, Phaeodactylum, Nannochloropsis, Isochrysis, Nitzschia, Diacronema, which produce EPA, Porphyridium , which produce arachidonic acid and Desmodesmus sp. which produce alpha-linolenic acid (Lu et al., 2021;Nagappan and Verma, 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Lu et al., 2021
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Nagappan and Verma, 2018
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe beneficial effects of PUFAs on human well-being are well known.
“The beneficial effects of PUFAs on human well-being are well known (Katiyar and Arora, 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Katiyar and Arora, 2020
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDHA and EPA are nutritionally important PUFAs and can be found at high levels in several microalgae.
“The docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are nutritionally important PUFAs, which could be found at high levels in several microalgae (Table 7).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Table 7
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMicroalgae that contain a high amount of lutein are Chlorella and Scenedesmus species.
“Microalgae that contain a high amount of lutein are Chlorella and Scenedesmus species (Dawood et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Dawood et al., 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe recommended lipid level for making fish feed pellets obtained via an extruder is 120 g/kg.
“Therefore, the recommended ipid level for making fish feed pellets, obtained via an extruder, is 120 g/kg (Rokey, 1994).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rokey, 1994
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe most widely used technique for producing microalgal paste is centrifugation.
“The most widely used technique for producing microalgal paste is centrifugation (McCausland et al., 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McCausland et al., 1999 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationShrimp grown in green water costs US$ 1-3 per kg, while shrimp grown in a conventional feed supplemented system costs US$ 4-8 per kg.
“According to a study, shrimp grown in”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Biao and Kaijin, 2007
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Neori, 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationDry feed is expected to account for around 36% of total aquafeed demand in 2019.
“Dry feed is expected to account for around 36% of total aquafeed demand in 2019 (Allaboutfeed, 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Allaboutfeed, 2021
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationExtrusion involves high pressure (20-30 bar), high temperature (120-130°C), and shear forces.
“Extrusion is a process that involves high pressure (20-30 bar), high temperature (120-130 • C), and shear forces (Dalbhagat et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Dalbhagat et al., 2019 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningHigh pressure and temperature in the extrusion process can degrade the functional compounds of microalgae, so cold pelletization techniques may be preferable in such cases.
“However, high pressure and temperature in the extrusion process can degrade the functional compounds of microalgae, so cold pelletization techniques may be preferable in such cases.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe drawbacks of off-the-shelf feeds include cell settling, bacterial degradation, nutrient leaching, aggregation, loss of nutritive and functional value, and disintegration for dried algae.
“The drawbacks of off-the-shelf feeds include cell settling, bacterial degradation, nutrient leaching, aggregation, loss of nutritive and functional value, and disintegration for dried algae (Hemaiswarya et al., 2011;Wan et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAnother popular technique for producing microalgal paste is chemical flocculation of microalgae by modifying the pH.
“Another popular technique is the chemical flocculation of microalgae by modifying the pH (Pugazhendhi et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pugazhendhi et al., 2019
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationLutein pigment is used as a feed additive mainly for yellow/red colour.
“Lutein pigment is also used as a feed additive mainly for yellow/red colour (Dawood et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Dawood et al., 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLipid-rich microalgae can act as a lubricant in the extruder barrel, reducing viscous heat dissipation and lowering pellet quality.
“For instance, lipid-rich microalgae can act as a lubricant in the extruder barrel, reducing viscous heat dissipation and lowering pellet quality (Samuelsen et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Samuelsen et al., 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationGreen water/poly-aquaculture techniques are generally low-cost and require little maintenance.
“Green water/poly-aquaculture techniques are generally low-cost and require little maintenance (Muller-Feuga, 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Muller-Feuga, 2000 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMicroalgae-based feed costs less than fish meal (1.5$/kg) and insect-based feed (3-5.9$/kg) but higher than plant-based feed (0.64$/kg).
“In comparison, microalgae-based feed costs lesser than the fish meal (1.5$/kg) and insect-based feed (3-5.9$/kg)but higher than the plant-based feed (0.64$/kg) (Arru et al., 2019;Indexmundi, 2021;Sarker et al., 2020a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Arru et al., 2019 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Indexmundi, 2021
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Sarker et al., 2020a
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLoss of CO2 to the atmosphere and parasitic energy consumption are major issues, especially in raceway ponds; in the case of a fermentor, the impact is due to the carbon source.
“In addition, the loss of CO 2 to the atmosphere and parasitic energy consumption are major issues, especially in raceway ponds; in the case of a fermentor, the impact is due to the carbon source (Kroumov et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kroumov et al., 2016 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMicroalgal biomass harvesting is energy-intensive and accounts for nearly 20-30% of total production costs.
“Microalgal biomass harvesting is energy-intensive and accounts for nearly 20-30% of total production costs (Barros et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Barros et al., 2015 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe water footprints of microalgae biomass production are 2857 L kg-1 for open raceway pond and 1618 L kg-1 for biofilm photobioreactor.
“The water footprints of microalgae biomass production are 2857 L kg -1 , and 1618 L kg -1 for open raceway pond, and biofilm photobioreactor, respectively (Ozkan et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ozkan et al., 2012 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAmmonia excreted by fish could act as a nitrogen source for microalgae; thus, green water/poly-aquaculture techniques reduce eutrophication potential.
“Ammonia excreted by fish could act as a nitrogen source for microalgae; thus, green water/poly-aquaculture techniques reduce eutrophication potential.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe feeding of microalgal biomass produced from high rate algal ponds to shrimp had less marine eutrophication potential than algae used for biogas production; however, freshwater eutrophication potential was similar for both scenarios.
“According to a study by (Sfez et al., 2015), the feeding of microalgal biomass produced from high rate algal ponds to shrimp had less marine eutrophication potential than algae used for biogas production; however, freshwater eutrophication potential was similar for both scenarios.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sfez et al., 2015 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSourcing water and CO2, harvesting, extraction, and drying are all energy-intensive steps in microalgal biomass or metabolite production.
“Sourcing water and CO 2 , harvesting, extraction, and drying are all energy-intensive steps in microalgal biomass or metabolite production (Fasaei et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fasaei et al., 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenMicroalgae can be used in aquaculture in various ways, including algal paste, extruded pellets, and poly-aquaculture.
“Microalgae can be used in aquaculture in various ways, including algal paste, extruded pellets, and polyaquaculture.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Microalgae contain functional compounds with activities such as prebiotics, probiotics, and disease resistance.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningLow productivity in large-scale open ponds, energy-intensive harvesting techniques, and more expensive downstream processing techniques all contribute to high production costs.
“The low productivity in large-scale open ponds, energy-intensive harvesting techniques, and more expensive downstream processing techniques all contribute to the high production costs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn some cases, microalgae have lower protein content and higher carbohydrate content than conventional feed, reducing feed suitability.
“In some cases, microalgae have lower protein content and higher carbohydrate content than conventional feed -reducing feed suitability (Skrede et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skrede et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIf ingredients like taurine are added to microalgal feed, fish will have better intake, resulting in superior growth performance.
“However, if ingredients like taurine are added to microalgal feed, fish will have better intake, resulting in superior growth performance (Takagi et al., 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Takagi et al., 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThe selection of microalgal strains with desired cellular composition and lower production cost as feed could meet a significant demand for fish feed in the coming future.
“The selection of microalgal strains with desired cellular composition and lower production cost as feed could meet a significant demand for fish feed in the coming future.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Traditional fish feed comprising fish meal and soybean meal as bulk ingredient does not meet demand and is unsustainable.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe European Food Safety Authority approved carotenoids from Dunaliella salina and DHA from C. cohnii.
“The European Food Safety Authority approved carotenoids from Dunaliella salina and DHA from C. cohnii (Enzing et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Enzing et al., 2014
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSelected microalgal components can have an impact on fish health; for example, extracellular polysaccharides from D. tertiolecta have been shown to reduce nutrient absorption.
“Selected microalgal components can have an impact on fish health; for example, extracellular polysaccharides from D. tertiolecta have been shown to reduce nutrient absorption (Mohebbi et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mohebbi et al., 2016
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
Increasing the production of terrestrial plant-based feed leads to deforestation and increased freshwater use.
“Similarly, increasing the production of terrestrial plant-based feed leads to deforestation and increased freshwater use.”
The paper relies on this without support.
An increase in fish consumption combined with a decrease in wild fish harvest is driving the aquaculture industry at a rapid pace.
“An increase in fish consumption, combined with a decrease in wild fish harvest, is driving the aquaculture industry at rapid pace.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There are not many studies on the effect of algae and algal substances on filet quality like gaping, texture, etc.
“Even though an important parameter in the saleability of fish, there is not many studies on the effect of algae and algal substances on filet quality like gaping, texture, etc.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Customers use colour as one of their first cues when selecting seafood.
“Customers use colour as one of their first cues when selecting seafood.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Fish pigmentation is influenced by microalgal biomasses.
“Fish pigmentation is known to be influenced by microalgal biomasses.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Harvesting is a very expensive step in the production of off-the-shelf feed.
“Also, harvesting is a very expensive step in the production of off-the-shelf feed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Microalgae-based fish feed has low palatability.
“Similar to many alternate feeds, the microalgae-based fish feed has a low palatability, but this can be improved by changing the texture of the feed and adding attractants/ stimulants that fish's chemosensory systems accept.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In many cases, harvested microalgal biomass is unsuitable for direct use as fish feed.
“In many cases, the harvested microalgal biomass is unsuitable for direct use as fish feed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Large cold rooms or freezers are required to preserve the nutritional and functional properties of feed.
“Large cold rooms or freezers are required to preserve the nutritional and functional properties of feed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Microalgae feed improves the gut health and survival of fishes.
“Microalgae feed is also recommended because it improves the gut health and survival of fishes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Microalgae feed contains higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids than other fish feeds.
“Also, one of the major advantages of microalgae feed is that it contains higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids than other fish feeds.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Traditional fish feed comprising fish meal and soybean meal as bulk ingredient does not meet demand and is unsustainable.
“Traditional fish feed comprising fish meal and soybean meal as bulk ingredient, however, does not meet demand and unsustainable.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Aquaculture products and aquafeed are in higher demand around the world.
“Aquaculture products and aquafeed are in higher demand around the world.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Microalgae have a faster growth rate and the ability to grow and produce high-value products without the use of arable land and freshwater.
“It has characteristics such as a faster growth rate and the ability to grow and produce high-value products without the use of arable land and freshwater.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Microalgae contain functional compounds with activities such as prebiotics, probiotics, and disease resistance.
“This includes activities such as prebiotics, probiotics, and disease resistance.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
DMB shows great promise in various applications, offering an alternative protein source, improved growth, and reduced reliance on traditional feed ingredients.
“Despite this, DMB shows great promise in various applications, offering an alternative protein source, improved growth, and reduced reliance on traditional feed ingredients [102].”
From A Holistic Approach to Circular Bioeconomy Through the Sustainable Utilization of Microalgal Biomass for Biofuel and Other Value-Added Products (2024) · cites this paper as [102]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Photobioreactor size increase is misstated
MinorIncreasing the area from 25 to 1500 m2 is a 60-fold increase, not a 3.75-fold increase.
Reported 3.75 · recomputed 60
“increasing the size of the photobioreactor by 3.75 times (from 25 to 1500 m 2 )”
Low-to-moderate microalgae inclusion does not always preserve or reduce FCR
MinorThe text characterizes the Table 5 results at 2-10% inclusion as unchanged or reduced FCR. Yet its 10% Scenedesmus entry reports an increase from 0.76 to 0.88, or 16%.
“Table 5 shows that the feed conversion ratio in aquatic species was not affected or even considerably reduced when fed with a diet containing a low and moderate amount of microalgae (2-10%).”
“| Atlantic salmon | Scenedesmus sp. | 10 | Fish Meal | Extrusion | 0.88 | 0.76 | 16 | (Gong et al., 2019) |”
The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet
References 206 · Cited by 364
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Fadl, 2017, Contribution of microalgae-enriched fodder for the Nile tilapia to growth and resistance to infection with Aeromonas hydrophila, Algal Res., 27, 82, 10.1016/j.algal.2017.08.022 · DOI
- Laporte, 2009, Poultry meat meal: a valuable source of the partial replacement of fish meal in aquafeeds, Int. Aquafeed, 12, 12
- Mustafa, 1995, A review: dietary benefits of algae as an additive in fish feed, Isr. J. Aquac., 47, 155
- Sharawy, 2020, Effects of dietary marine microalgae, Tetraselmis suecica, on production, gene expression, protein markers and bacterial count of Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, Aquac. Res., 51, 2216, 10.1111/are.14566 · DOI
- Watanabe, 1990, Effect of dietary Spirulina supplement on growth performance and flesh lipids of cultured striped jack, J. Tokyo Univ. Fish., 77, 231
- Authors
- Nagappan, S., Das, P., AbdulQuadir, M., Thaher, M., Khan, S., Mahata, C., Al-Jabri, H., Vatland, A. K., & Kumar, G.
- Affiliations
- Qatar University (QA)
- University of Stavanger (NO)
- Corresponding author
- Das, Probir
- Kumar, Gopalakrishnan
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Biotechnology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-11
- Volume
- 341
- Pages
- 1-20
- ISSN
- 0168-1656 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3199653913
- Cited by
- 364
- References
- 206
- Citations by year
- 2026: 55 · 2025: 79 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 4
- FWCI
- 5.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Biotechnology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Qatar University QSpace (Qatar University) (submittedVersion)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Qatar National Research Fund
- Qatar Foundation (MME01-0910-190028)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Aquaculture Nutrition and Growth
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Algal biology and biofuel production
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Aquaculture disease management and microbiota
- Keywords
- microalgae, aquaculture feed, sustainable feed ingredients, fish meal replacement, microalgal biomass, bioactive compounds, fish coloration, fillet quality, environmental sustainability, microalgae cultivation, essential amino acids, triglycerides, pigments
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Feed, Fishes, Humans, Ecosystem, Aquaculture, Microalgae
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.
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