Tattoo-Based Noninvasive Glucose Monitoring: A Proof-of-Concept Study
Open accessAbstract
We present a proof-of-concept demonstration of an all-printed temporary tattoo-based glucose sensor for noninvasive glycemic monitoring. The sensor represents the first example of an easy-to-wear flexible tattoo-based epidermal diagnostic device combining reverse iontophoretic extraction of interstitial glucose and an enzyme-based amperometric biosensor. In-vitro studies reveal the tattoo sensor's linear response toward physiologically relevant glucose levels with negligible interferences from common coexisting electroactive species. The iontophoretic-biosensing tattoo platform is reduced to practice by applying the device on human subjects and monitoring variations in glycemic levels due to food consumption. Correlation of the sensor response with that of a commercial glucose meter underscores the promise of the tattoo sensor to detect glucose levels in a noninvasive fashion. Control on-body experiments demonstrate the importance of the reverse iontophoresis operation and validate the sensor specificity. This preliminary investigation indicates that the tattoo-based iontophoresis-sensor platform holds considerable promise for efficient diabetes management and can be extended toward noninvasive monitoring of other physiologically relevant analytes present in the interstitial fluid.
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A two-electrode configuration using Ag/AgCl as both reference and counter electrode is a standard approach for low-current electrochemical sensing.
“The two-electrode system is a common strategy for low-current electrochemical sensing34,35.”
From Fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [35]
The Results and Discussion section describes this tattoo glucose sensor using an Ag/AgCl electrode as a combined counter/reference electrode alongside a working electrode (page unavailable). It does not say that this two-electrode configuration is a common or standard strategy for low-current electrochemical sensing; its discussion of lower current density concerns glucose extraction by reverse iontophoresis, not the sensing configuration. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdding a third counter electrode to the earlier two-electrode tattoo biosensor design offers improved potentiostatic control.
“Adding the third counter electrode to our earlier two-electrode tattoo biosensor design 25 offers improved potentiostatic control.”
From Noninvasive Alcohol Monitoring Using a Wearable Tattoo-Based Iontophoretic-Biosensing System (2016) · cites this paper as [25]
A printed flexible tattoo-based glucose sensor showed a linear response toward physiologically relevant glucose levels with negligible responses from electroactive species in vitro.
“In vitro studies using the biosensor demonstrated a linear response toward physiologically relevant glucose levels with negligible responses from electroactive species.”
From Wearable sensors for monitoring the physiological and biochemical profile of the athlete (2019) · cites this paper as [65]
In human subjects during eating, the tattoo-based glucose sensor correlated with a commercial glucose meter.
“Results showed that the sensor correlated with that of a commercial glucose meter.”
From Wearable sensors for monitoring the physiological and biochemical profile of the athlete (2019) · cites this paper as [65]
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- Authors
- Bandodkar, A. J., Jia, W., Yardımcı, C., Wang, X., Ramirez, J., & Wang, J.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Corresponding author
- Wang, Joseph
- Venue
- Analytical Chemistry
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2014-12-12
- Volume
- 87
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 394-398
- ISSN
- 0003-2700 (ISSN-L)
- 1520-6882
- OpenAlex
- W2068896164
- Cited by
- 700
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 46 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 17
- FWCI
- 19.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Analytical Chemistry (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- China Scholarship Council
- Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electrochemical sensors and biosensors
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biosensors and Analytical Detection
- Keywords
- non-invasive glucose monitoring, temporary tattoos, reverse iontophoresis, interstitial glucose, amperometric biosensor, printed electronics, flexible wearable sensors, diabetes management
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Epidermis, Equipment Design, Female, Glucose, Humans, Iontophoresis, Male, Tattooing, Biosensing Techniques, Extracellular Fluid, Young Adult, Healthy Volunteers
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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