Exposure and affect: Overview and meta-analysis of research, 1968–1987.
Abstract
L'auteur analyse les effets de variables methodologiques (type et complexite du stimulus, intervalle de presentation, temps d'exposition) et de variables subjectives (âge d'exposition, personnalite) sur la sensibilite du sujet aux stimulus de toutes sortes. Il conclut sur l'interet methodologique de sa recherche, ainsi que sur ses apports pratiques (publicite, traitement de la phobie)
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Individuals prefer the familiar to the unknown because more risks are involved about the unknown.
“In general, individuals prefer the familiar to the unknown because more risks are involved about the unknown [49,50].”
From Consumer Responses to Generative AI Chatbots Versus Search Engines for Product Evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as [50]
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Hamid, P. N. (1973) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1973.tb01383.x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Effects of need for approval and intolerance of ambiguity upon stimulus preference
Crandall, J. E. (1968) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1968.tb01460.x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
One-mediator model of exposure effects is still viable.
Birnbaum, M. H., & Mellers, B. A. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.37.6.1090 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Perception of cartoon humor as a function of familiarity and anxiety level.
Schick, C., McGlynn, R. P., & Woolam, D. (1972) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0033305 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Relationship between Environmental Familiarity and Environmental Preference
Pedersen, D. M. (1978) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1978.47.3.739 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Barchas, P. R., & Perlaki, K. M. (1986) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.100.3.343 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Siebold, J. R. (1972) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(72)90048-3 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Preferences for Christian names as a function of their experienced familiarity
Colman, A. M., Hargreaves, D. J., & Sluckin, W. (1981) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1981.tb00465.x · Cited by 18 · see citing works
White Boys' Ratings of Pictures of Whites and Blacks as Related to Amount of Familiarization
Ball, P. M., & Cantor, G. N. (1974) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1974.39.2.883 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
PREFERENCES FOR COMMON WORDS, UNCOMMON WORDS AND NON‐WORDS BY CHILDREN AND YOUNG ADULTS
Colman, A. M., Walley, M., & Sluckin, W. (1975) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01483.x · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Pistole, D. D., & Shor, R. E. (1979) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1979.9710524 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The influence of stimulus incongruity on the familiarity effect in visual selection
Faw, T. T., & Nunnally, J. C. (1971) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03212618 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Effects of varying exposure to another person with familiar or unfamiliar thought processes
Brickman, P., Meyer, P. A., & Fredd, S. (1975) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(75)80026-6 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Relative intake of saccharin drinking schedule
Navarick, D. J., & Strouthes, A. (1969) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03336256 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The novel and the familiar: Sources of interest in verbal information
Teigen, K. H. (1985) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/bf02686573 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Faw, T. T., & Pien, D. (1971) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(71)90038-5 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
An Evolutionary Approach to Research on the Life Cycle
Freedman, D. G. (2009) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000271204 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Intrinsic interest and the novelty‐familiarity interaction
Teigen, K. H. (1987) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1987.tb00756.x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Effects of Repeated Listening on Connotative Meaning of Serious Music
Lieberman, L. R., & Walters, W. M. (1968) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1968.26.3.891 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Field Extension of the Frequency-Affect Findings
Crandall, R. (1972) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1972.31.2.371 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Attitudinal effects of mere exposure: A replication and extension
Janisse, M. P. (1970) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03337428 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Attitude Change by Stimulus Exposures
Litvak, S. B. (1969) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1969.25.2.391 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Some effects of attitudinal similarity and exposure on attraction and aggression
Shuntich, R. J. (1976) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(76)90068-4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Familiarity and Liking: Direct Tests of the Preference-Feedback Hypothesis
Colman, A. M., Best, W. M., & Austen, A. J. (1986) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1986.58.3.931 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Familiarity and Musical Training in the Esthetic Evaluation of Music
Edmonston, W. E. (1969) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1969.9922393 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Mere repeated exposure and experimental stress as determiners of stimulus evaluations
Vanbeselaere, N. (1980) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00995930 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Preference and Expectancy Arousal: Further Evidence
Crandall, J. E. (1970) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1970.9710809 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Interest and liking: Further sequential effects
Berryman, J. C. (1984) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/bf02686556 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Repeated Exposure to Liked and Disliked Social Stimuli
Bukoff, A., & Elman, D. (1979) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1979.9922685 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Influence of Familiarity on Responses to Visual Qualities of Neighborhoods
Nasar, J. L. (1980) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1980.51.2.635 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Initial Evaluation of Stimuli as Another Limiting Condition of the Exposure Effect
İmamoğlu, E. O. (1974) · British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1974.tb00103.x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Exposure Duration as a Confounding Methodological Factor in Projective Testing
Stang, D. J., Campus, N., & Wallach, C. (1975) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa3906_5 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The role of familiarity in the appreciation of humor
Suls, J. M. (1975) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1975.tb02385.x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Mednick, M. T. S., & Mednick, S. A. (1963) · Holt, Rinehart and Winston eBooks · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Stimulus Properties, Frequency of Exposure, and Affective Responding
Reich, J. W., & Moody, C. A. (1970) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1970.30.1.27 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A Summary Review of Mediating Explanations of Exposure Phenomena
Grush, J. E. (1979) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/014616727900500205 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
THE INFLUENCE OF STIMULUS FAMILIARITY/NOVELTY ON CHILDREN'S EXPRESSED PREFERENCES
Sluckin, W., Miller, L. B., & Franklin, H. C. (1973) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1973.tb01382.x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Lemond, L. C., & Nunnally, J. C. (1974) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(74)90117-9 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Effects of Frequency, Duration of Study Trial, and Total Duration of Exposure on Affective Judgments
Marcus, M. G., & Hakmiller, K. L. (1975) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1975.37.1.195 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Pheterson, M., & Horai, J. (1976) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.1976.4.2.241 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Exposure, Favorability and Item Endorsement
Harrison, A. A. (1968) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1968.23.3f.1070 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
THE INFLUENCE OF SHORT‐TERM NOVELTY ON AFFECTIVE ASSERTIONS IN YOUNG CHILDREN
Freeman, N. (1972) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1972.tb01305.x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Meyer, M. F. (1903) · The American Journal of Psychology · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Frequency-Affect Relationship in a Simultaneous Spatial Presentation
Matlin, M. W. (1974) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1974.35.1.379 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rabinowitz, F. M., & Robe, C. V. (1968) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0026670 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Rating of Materials Found in the Mailbox: Effects of Frequency of Receipt
Rajecki, D. W., & Wolfson, C. (1973) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1086/268064 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Familiarity Breeds Success: A Field Study of Exposure and Voting Behavior
Schaffner, P., & Wandersman, A. H. (1974) · Proceedings of the Division of Personality and Society Psychology · doi:10.1177/014616727400100130 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Preference for Novelty-Familiarity and Activity-Passivity in a Free Choice Situation
Eson, M. E., Cometa, M. S., Allen, D. A., & Henel, P. A. (1977) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.1977.10533266 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Effect of novelty on stimulus selection in children
Leckart, B. T., Briggs, B., & Kirk, J. (1968) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03331449 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Frequency of Exposure and Evaluation of Candidates and Campaign Speeches1
Suedfeld, P., Rank, D. S., & Borrie, R. A. (1975) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1975.tb01301.x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Preference for news as a function of familiarity
Teigen, K. H. (1985) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1985.tb01174.x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tucker, R. K., & Ware, P. D. (1971) · Quarterly Journal of Speech · doi:10.1080/00335637109383089 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Familiarity and attraction to stimuli: Developmental change or methodological artifact?
Kail, R. V. (1974) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(74)90128-3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pop Records and Connotative Satiation: Test of Jakobovits' Theory
Bush, P. A., & Pease, K. (1968) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1968.23.3.871 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Task difficulty and the reinforcement effects of high- and low-frequency stimuli.
Harrison, A. A., Tufts, J. W., & Strayer, J. B. (1974) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0036553 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Learning mediates the exposure-attraction relationship: More evidence
Stang, D. J., Faranda, J., & Tantillo, J. (1977) · Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society · doi:10.3758/bf03336916 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Linford, M. D., & Linford, A. G. (1977) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1977.41.1.251 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
EXPOSURE, RECALL, JUDGED FAVORABILITY, AND SALES: “MERE EXPOSURE” AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Stang, D. J. (1977) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.1977.5.2.329 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Personality Differences in the Relationship Between Familiarity and Liking
Martindale, C. (1972) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1972.9916926 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Effects of Perceived Novelty on Approach-Avoidance Behavior of Young Children
Jeanrenaud, C. Y., & Linford, A. G. (1969) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1969.29.2.491 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Complexity, Incongruity, Pre-Exposure and the Familiarity Effect in Visual Selection
Lemond, L. C. (1978) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1978.46.1.99 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Guessing Versus Judging After Mere Repeated Exposure
Vanbeselaere, N. (1977) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.608 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006) · Journal of personality and social psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 · Cited by 8,964 · see citing works
Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 · Cited by 6,682 · see citing works
“Bornstein and D'Agostino ( l992), pursuing a lead that came from Bornstein's (1 989) meta-analytic review, established that mere exposure effects are strongest when conditions reduce subjects' memory for the effect-producing exposures. Under these circumstances, it appears that increased perceptual fluency of a repeat…”
InfluentialNature and Operation of Attitudes
Ajzen, I. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.27 · Cited by 4,321 · see citing works
“Affective Primacy It is well established that repeated exposure to novel stimuli tends to increase linking for those stimuli even—and especially—when participants are unaware of having been exposed (see Bornstein 1989 for a review).”
BackgroundIndividual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate?
Stanovich, K., & West, R. (2000) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00003435 · Cited by 2,987 · see citing works
Risk as Analysis and Risk as Feelings: Some Thoughts about Affect, Reason, Risk, and Rationality
Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2004) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00433.x · Cited by 3,885 · see citing works
“positive affect by means of what is known as “the mere exposure effect” ( Bornstein, 1989;”
BackgroundHeuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment
Bottom, W. P., Gilovich, T., Griffin, D. W., & Kahneman, D. (2002) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/20159081 · Cited by 3,923 · see citing works
Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment.
Kahneman, D., & Frederick, S. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.004 · Cited by 3,476 · see citing works
Processing Fluency and Aesthetic Pleasure: Is Beauty in the Perceiver's Processing Experience?
Reber, R., Schwarz, N., & Winkielman, P. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3 · Cited by 2,967 · see citing works
Effect size guidelines for individual differences researchers
Gignac, G. E., & Szodorai, E. T. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.069 · Cited by 2,860 · see citing works
Zhu, F., & Zhang, X. (2010) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1509/jmkg.74.2.133 · Cited by 2,372 · see citing works
Slovic, P., Finucane, M., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.025 · Cited by 2,349 · see citing works
“Clinical versus Actuarial Judgment.”
Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., & Meehl, P. E. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2648573 · Cited by 2,298 · see citing works
Ellis, N. C. (2002) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263102002024 · Cited by 2,230 · see citing works
“…that had been read for content during an earlier part of the experiment were judged as more grammatically acceptable during a subsequent test phase, a finding that demonstrates an implicit memory or the “mere exposure” effect (Bornstein, 1989) for identically repeated natural language stimuli.”
(2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098 · Cited by 2,214 · see citing works
A model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgments
Leder, H., Belke, B., Oeberst, A., & Augustin, D. (2004) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/0007126042369811 · Cited by 1,968 · see citing works
Relational Job Design and the Motivation to Make a Prosocial Difference
Grant, A. M. (2007) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2007.24351328 · Cited by 1,864 · see citing works
“…is likely to increase affective commitment, based on findings that increasing physical proximity between people tends to increase identification and liking (Bornstein, 1989; Festinger, Schachter, & Back, 1950; Saegert, Swap, & Zajonc, 1973), as well as perspective taking (Parker & Axtell, 2001).”
BackgroundThe weighing of evidence and the determinants of confidence
Griffin, D. W., & Tversky, A. (1992) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(92)90013-r · Cited by 1,712 · see citing works
The Evolutionary Psychology of Facial Beauty
Rhodes, G. (2005) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190208 · Cited by 1,757 · see citing works
“A preference for average (and symmetric) faces could also be a by-product of their subjective familiarity and a preference for familiar stimuli (Bornstein 1989, Halberstadt et al. 2003, Langlois & Roggman 1990, Langlois et al. 1994, Light et al. 1981, Rhodes et al. 2001a, Zajonc 1968).”
BackgroundUniting the Tribes of Fluency to Form a Metacognitive Nation
Alter, A. L., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309341564 · Cited by 1,674 · see citing works
“Bornstein and D’Agostino (1992, 1994; Bornstein, 1989) later formalized the link between mere exposure and fluency.”
One Hundred Years of Social Psychology Quantitatively Described
Richard, F. D., Bond, C. F., & Stokes-Zoota, J. J. (2003) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.7.4.331 · Cited by 1,558 · see citing works
Recent advances in intergroup contact theory
Pettigrew, T., Tropp, L., Wagner, U., & Christ, O. (2011) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.03.001 · Cited by 1,434 · see citing works
Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2007) · European Journal of Operational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2005.04.006 · Cited by 1,537 · see citing works
An integrative theory of intergroup contact
Brown, R. J., & Hewstone, M. (2005) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(05)37005-5 · Cited by 1,512 · see citing works
Chen, M., & Bargh, J. A. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299025002007 · Cited by 1,473 · see citing works
Metacognitive Experiences in Consumer Judgment and Decision Making
Schwarz, N. (2004) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp1404_2 · Cited by 1,343 · see citing works
“The best known example is the mere exposure effect identified by Zajonc (1968): Repeated exposure to an initially neutral stimulus, without any reinforcement, leads to a gradual increase in liking (for reviews, see Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, 2000; for limiting conditions, see Bornstein, 1989).”
Feelings and phenomenal experiences
Schwarz, N., Clore, G. L., Kruglanski, A. W., & (eds, E. T. H. (2007) · Cited by 1,350 · see citing works
Effects of Perceptual Fluency on Affective Judgments
Reber, R., Winkielman, P., & Schwarz, N. (1998) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00008 · Cited by 1,326 · see citing works
Emotional responses to music: The need to consider underlying mechanisms
Juslin, P. N., & Västfjäll, D. (2008) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x08005293 · Cited by 1,914 · see citing works
“2007; cf. Keysers & Gazzola 2006; van der Gaag et al. 2007). This internal simulation of emotions expressed by another is thought to be part of the brain’s mechanisms for empathy, giving an observer access to the subjective state of another by recruiting the observer’s own neural representations of that state (Preston…”
Support theory: a nonextensional representation of subjective probability
Tversky, A., & Koehler, D. J. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.4.547 · Cited by 1,167 · see citing works
Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems
Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M. F. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00035032 · Cited by 1,163 · see citing works
Health warning messages on tobacco products: a review
Hammond, D. (2011) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tc.2010.037630 · Cited by 1,162 · see citing works
The dynamics of embodiment: A field theory of infant perseverative reaching
Thelen, E., Schöner, G., Scheier, C., & Smith, L. B. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003910 · Cited by 1,073 · see citing works
Affect, risk, and decision making.
Slovic, P., Peters, E. M., Finucane, M. L., & MacGregor, D. G. (2005) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.4.s35 · Cited by 1,045 · see citing works
“The repetitive exposure to smoking and cigarette brands through advertising likely creates positive affect by means of what is known as “the mere exposure effect” (Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, 1980).”
BackgroundDeterminants of Sports Sponsorship Response
Speed, R., & Thompson, P. (2000) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1177/0092070300282004 · Cited by 1,017 · see citing works
Facial attractiveness: evolutionary based research
Little, A. C., Jones, B. C., & DeBruine, L. M. (2011) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0404 · Cited by 1,017 · see citing works
Cacioppo, J. T., & Gardner, W. L. (1999) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.191 · Cited by 1,004 · see citing works
Attitude change: Multiple roles for persuasion variables.
Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1998) · Cited by 993 · see citing works
Winkielman, P., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.989 · Cited by 928 · see citing works
“…that the organism detects subtle changes in its own cognitive processes by affective feedback fits well with reports that manipulations such as mere exposure have the strongest influence on liking when target stimuli are novel and presented for relatively short durations ( Bornstein, 1989 ).”
BackgroundBem, D. J. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021524 · Cited by 893 · see citing works
“In a mere exposure experiment that included a measure of “Boredom Proneness,” Bornstein et al. (1990) report that only participants who were not prone to boredom showed a significant mere exposure effect (i.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Effect of Conceptual and Perceptual Fluency on Brand Evaluation
Lee, A. Y., & Labroo, A. (2004) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.41.2.151.28665 · Cited by 951 · see citing works
Cunningham, M. R., Roberts, A., Barbee, A. P., Druen, P. B., & Wu, C. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.261 · Cited by 833 · see citing works
“Findings on topics as diverse as language development, child rearing, and educational attainment (Scarr, 1985), mere exposure and affect (Bornstein, 1989), and incest avoidance (Bixler, 1992) indicate that nature and nurture interact in a delicate ballet, often toward the same goal.”
BackgroundDunning, D., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1082 · Cited by 758 · see citing works
On the social nature of nonsocial perception: The mere ownership effect.
Beggan, J. K. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.62.2.229 · Cited by 735 · see citing works
“His results have been frequently replicated in the social psychological literature (see Bornstein, 1989, for a recent review).”
The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: empirical evidence and theoretical implications.
Lovibond, P., & Shanks, D. (2002) · Journal of experimental psychology. Animal behavior processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.28.1.3 · Cited by 748 · see citing works
“If affective ratings tend to differentiate with repeated presentation, as in the mere exposure effect (Bornstein, 1989), then increased liking of N stimuli in N–”
BackgroundSPONSORSHIP-LINKED MARKETING: OPENING THE BLACK BOX
Cornwell, T. B., Weeks, C. S., & Roy, D. P. (2005) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2005.10639194 · Cited by 680 · see citing works
Dunning, D., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.020 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Guidelines for Selecting or Modifying Logos
Henderson, P. W., & Cote, J. A. (1998) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224299806200202 · Cited by 657 · see citing works
Stimulus recognition and the mere exposure effect.
Bornstein, R. F., & D’Agostino, P. R. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.63.4.545 · Cited by 643 · see citing works
Self-citationPrejudice towards Muslims in The Netherlands: Testing integrated threat theory
González, K. V., Verkuyten, M., Weesie, J., & Poppe, E. (2008) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466608x284443 · Cited by 619 · see citing works
“Having frequent contact with out-group members may increase acceptance and liking via mere exposure (Bornstein, 1989).”
Variability in photos of the same face
Jenkins, R., White, D., van Montfort, X. A. N. D. R. A., & Burton, A. M. (2011) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.001 · Cited by 610 · see citing works
“Although effects of familiarity on attractiveness have been reported before (Bornstein, 1989; Peskin & Newell, 2004; Rhodes, Halberstadt, & Brajkovich, 2001), previous studies have typically presented a single image of each face, and have not considered the within-person variability examined here.”
BackgroundThe truth about the truth: a meta-analytic review of the truth effect
Dechêne, A., Stahl, C., Hansen, J., & Wänke, M. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309352251 · Cited by 592 · see citing works
“Some of the results obtained by Bornstein (1989) in a seminal meta-analysis on the mere exposure effect correspond with our findings on the truth effect: Both effects occur independently from exposure duration (except for a tendency toward a smaller truth effect for participant-paced presentation…”
BackgroundResultInsurance, credit, and technology adoption: Field experimental evidencefrom Malawi
Giné, X., & Yang, D. (2009) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2008.09.007 · Cited by 585 · see citing works
Rational actors or rational fools: implications of the affect heuristic for behavioral economics
Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E. M., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002) · The Journal of Socio-Economics · doi:10.1016/s1053-5357(02)00174-9 · Cited by 581 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis by Bornstein (1989) of mere exposure research published between 1968 and 1987 included over 200 experiments examining the exposure-affect relationship. Unreinforced exposures were found to reliably enhance affect toward visual, auditory, gustatory, abstract, and social stimuli. Winkielman, Zajonc, and…”
BackgroundInfluentialHekkert, P., Snelders, D., & van Wieringen, P. V. (2003) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712603762842147 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
“In the latter case, the positive effect of repeated exposure may have been attenuated by the conscious, novelty seeking, ‘countercontrol’ mechanism (Bornstein, 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFuture directions for intergroup contact theory and research
Pettigrew, T. F. (2008) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2007.12.002 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
ASCERTAIN: Emotion and Personality Recognition Using Commercial Sensors
Subramanian, R., Wache, J., Abadi, M. K., Vieriu, R. L., WINKLER, S. S., & Sebe, N. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2016.2625250 · Cited by 536 · see citing works
“mere exposure effect observed in [49] attributing liking to familiarity.”
BackgroundSocial Psychological Face Perception: Why Appearance Matters
Zebrowitz, L. A., & Montepare, J. M. (2008) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00109.x · Cited by 672 · see citing works
“) Consistent with evidence that unfamiliar stimuli are generally less liked (Bornstein, 1989; Hamm, Baum, & Nikels, 1975; Rhodes, Halberstadt, & Brajkovich, 2001; Zajonc, 1968), faces of other-race strangers also are perceived as less likeable than those of own-race strangers (Zebrowitz, Bronstad, & Lee, 2007).”
Hudson, S., Roth, M. S., Madden, T. J., & Hudson, R. (2014) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2014.09.001 · Cited by 536 · see citing works
Predicting a changing taste: Do people know what they will like?
Kahneman, D. J., & Snell, J. (1992) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.3960050304 · Cited by 520 · see citing works
Affect Monitoring and the Primacy of Feelings in Judgment
Pham, M. T., Cohen, J. B., Pracejus, J. W., & Hughes, G. D. (2001) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/322896 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Design aesthetics: principles of pleasure in design
Hekkert, P. (2006) · Research Repository (Delft University of Technology) · Cited by 508 · see citing works
Grant, A. M., Campbell, E. M., Chen, G., Cottone, K., Lapedis, D., & Lee, K. S. (2006) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.05.004 · Cited by 497 · see citing works
How neuroscience will change our view on consciousness
Lamme, V. A. F. (2010) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588921003731586 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
The Effect of Brand Portfolio Characteristics on Consumer Evaluations of Brand Extensions
Dacin, P. A., & Smith, D. C. (1994) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/002224379403100207 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
The Theory Crisis in Psychology: How to Move Forward
Eronen, M. I., & Bringmann, L. F. (2021) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620970586 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
“The same holds for a broad range of other robust phenomena discovered in psychology, for example, the phenomenon that people tend to prefer familiar stimuli to unfamiliar ones (i.e., the mere-exposure effect; Bornstein, 1989).”
BackgroundPelowski, M. J., Markey, P. S., Forster, M., Gerger, G., & Leder, H. (2017) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2017.02.003 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Preattentive Mere Exposure Effects
Janiszewski, C. (1993) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209356 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
Things learned in early adulthood are remembered best
Rubin, D. C., Rahhal, T. A., & Poon, L. W. (1998) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03211366 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Rhodes, G., Jeffery, L., Watson, T., Clifford, C. W. G., & Nakayama, K. (2003) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1465.x · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Text and Graphic Warnings on Cigarette Packages
Hammond, D., Fong, G. T., Borland, R., Cummings, K. M., McNeill, A., & Driezen, P. (2007) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2006.11.011 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Bornstein, R. F., & D’Agostino, P. R. (1994) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1994.12.2.103 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Self-citationUnpacking, repacking, and anchoring: advances in support theory.
Rottenstreich, Y., & Tversky, A. (1997) · Psychology Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.2.406 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Biasing simple choices by manipulating relative visual attention
Armel, K. C., Beaumel, A., & Rangel, A. (2008) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500000413 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
“A typical experiment shows that the subjects' reports about how much they like seeing an stimulus (e.g., a Chinese ideogram or a foreign language word) can be increased through repeated and brief previous exposures to the items (for a review see Bornstein, 1989).”
BackgroundIncorporating the Irrelevant: Anchors in Judgments of Belief and Value
Chapman, G. B., & Johnson, E. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.008 · Cited by 447 · see citing works
Sloman, S. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.024 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
A theory of implicit and explicit knowledge
Dienes, Z., & Perner, J. (1999) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x99002186 · Cited by 672 · see citing works
Janssen, E., Everaerd, W., Spiering, M., & Janssen, J. (2000) · Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224490009552016 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Are “implicit” attitudes unconscious?
Gawronski, B., Hofmann, W., & Wilbur, C. J. (2006) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2005.11.007 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Allen, D. G., Mahto, R. V., & Otondo, R. F. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1696 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
“Marketing research has consistently found that organizational familiarity generally has a positive impact on attitudes toward the organization (Aaker, 1996; Keller, 1993), while psychology research documents the positive impact of familiarity on affect and attitudes (Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, 1968).”
BackgroundDoing Poorly by Doing Good: Corporate Social Responsibility and Brand Concepts
Torelli, C. J., Monga, A. B., & Kaikati, A. M. (2012) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/660851 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
The nature of music from a biological perspective
Peretz, I. (2006) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2005.11.004 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
Menninghaus, W., Wagner, V., Wassiliwizky, E., Schindler, I., Hanich, J., Jacobsen, T., & Koelsch, S. (2019) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000135 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Montoya, R. M., Horton, R. S., Vevea, J. L., Citkowicz, M., & Lauber, E. A. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000085 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Affect in Web Interfaces: A Study of the Impacts of Web Page Visual Complexity and Order1
Deng, L., & Poole, M. S. (2010) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/25750702 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Product Experience Is Seductive
Hoch, S. J. (2002) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/344422 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
“There is some evidence suggesting that mere exposure effects and other forms of implicit learning are greater when the subject is unaware of being exposed (Bornstein 1989).”
BackgroundEffects of Brand Logo Complexity, Repetition, and Spacing on Processing Fluency and Judgment
Janiszewski, C., & Meyvis, T. (2001) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/321945 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Low-Involvement Learning: Memory without Evaluation
Hawkins, S. A., & Hoch, S. J. (1992) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209297 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
When Less Is More: Counterfactual Thinking and Satisfaction Among Olympic Medalists
Medvec, V., Madey, S. F., & Gilovich, T. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.69.4.603 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Subliminal Mere Exposure: Specific, General, and Diffuse Effects
Monahan, J. L., Murphy, S. T., & Zajonc, R. B. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00289 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
A Conceptual and Theoretical Analysis of Evaluative Conditioning
Houwer, J. D. (2007) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/s1138741600006491 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
“For instance, research on the mere exposure effect has demonstrated that the repeated non-contingent presentations of a stimulus (i.e., repeatedly presenting the stimulus on its own) can change the liking of the stimulus (see Bornstein, 1989, for a review).”
BackgroundLowry, P. B., Vance, A., Moody, G. D., Beckman, B., & Read, A. (2008) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.2753/mis0742-1222240408 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
“The two-factor model of mere exposure effects, initially developed in Berlyne [6] and extended in Stang [65], provides strong insights as to why and how the mere exposure effect occurs [8].”
Psychometric measures of boredom: a review of the literature
Vodanovich, S. J. (2003) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980309600636 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Lee, Y., & Kwon, O. (2011) · Electronic Commerce Research and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.elerap.2010.11.005 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
“Psychologists have long observed that repeated exposure to a stimulus results in an increase in positive affect (Bornstein 1989, Maslow 1937, Matlin 1971, Zajonc 1980, Zajonc and Helen 1982).”
BackgroundMatthes, J., Schemer, C., & Wirth, W. (2007) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2007.11073029 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
“Taken together, consistent with the literature previously discussed, it is proposed that there are three moderators of mere exposure effects to occur for product placements: first, the frequency of exposure (Bornstein 1989); second, the involvement in the plot (Winkielman et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialA Dual-Process Perspective on Fluency-Based Aesthetics
Graf, L. K. M., & Landwehr, J. R. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868315574978 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
“…liking.3 Next, several studies also suggest inverted U-shaped relationships between processing fluency and aesthetic liking (e.g., Berlyne, 1970; Bornstein, Kale, & Cornell, 1990; Hekkert et al., 2003; Landwehr et al., 2013; Miller, 1976; Van den Bergh & Vrana, 1998; see also Bornstein, 1989).”
BackgroundThe Role of a Narrative's Emotional Flow in Promoting Persuasive Outcomes
Nabi, R. L., & Green, M. C. (2014) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2014.912585 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
“This repeated narrative consumption is the equivalent of multiple persuasive message exposure, which is known to enhance message effectiveness (Bornstein, 1989; Harrison, 1977).”
The Effectiveness of Online Shopping Characteristics and Well-Designed Websites on Satisfaction1
Luo, J., ba, B., & Zhang, H. (2012) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/41703501 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
“Indeed, consumers tend to avoid risk and exhibit preferences for the familiar rather than for the unknown (Bornstein 1989).”
BackgroundOf Frog Wines and Frowning Watches: Semantic Priming, Perceptual Fluency, and Brand Evaluation
Labroo, A., Dhar, R., & Schwarz, N. (2008) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/523290 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Predecisional Distortion of Product Information
Russo, J. E., Meloy, M. G., & Medvec, V. H. (1998) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3152163 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Advertising Repetition: A Meta-Analysis on Effective Frequency in Advertising
Schmidt, S., & Eisend, M. (2015) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2015.1018460 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
“Stimulus-reaction theories provide the basis for learning information consciously or subconsciously (Blythe 2013; Pavlov 2003).”
Background
- Authors
- Bornstein, R. F.
- Affiliations
- Gettysburg College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bornstein, Robert F.
- ORCID
- Bornstein, Robert F.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1989-09
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 265-289
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2051913671
- Cited by
- 1,970
- References
- 195
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 62 · 2016: 95 · 2015: 95 · 2014: 80 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 95
- FWCI
- 2.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- exposure, affect, stimulus sensitivity, stimulus complexity, stimulus type, exposure duration, age of exposure, personality, advertising, phobia treatment
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