The DOI matches its Crossref record; 66 of the 66 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis.
Abstract
Experimental research on intergroup discrimination in favor of one's own group is reviewed in terms of the basis of differentiati on between in-group and outgroup and in terms of the response measure on which in-group bias is assessed. Results of the research reviewed suggest that (a) factors such as intergroup competition, similarity, and status differentials affect in-group bias indirectly by influencing the salience of distinctions between in-group and out-group, (b) the degree of intergroup differentiation on a particular response dimension is a joint function of the relevance of intergroup distinctions and the favorableness of the in-group's position on that dimension, and (c) the enhancement of in-group bias is more related to increased favoritism toward in-group members than to increased hostility toward out-group members. The implications of these results for positive applications of group identification are discussed. In 1906, sociologist William Sumner articulated a functionalist approach to the nature of intergroup attitudes in his exposition of the concept of ethnocentrism . The differentiation of peoples into distinct ethnic groups originates, according to Sumner, in context of the conditions of the struggle for existence. At the individual level, the psychological consequences of this differentiation both reflect and sustain the basic state of conflict between the in-group (or we-group) and out-groups (or others-groups):
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Negative traits are thus associated with teammates that they believe are dissimilar from them and sometimes actively avoid interactions with those teammates [24].”
From Challenges and barriers in virtual teams: a literature review (2020) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“People tend to favor members of their ingroup over outgroup members, which may result in negative intrateam interactions, conflict, distrust, disliking, and limited communication between members of different subgroups (Brewer, 1979;Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987).”
From Leading diversity: Towards a theory of functional leadership in diverse teams. (2020) · cites this paper as Brewer, 1979
In the citing paper
“These mechanisms are best characterized as cognitive–motivational, insofar as they involve the goal-directed (motivational) use of information processing (cognition), as described in several classic social psychological theories88,96,97.”
From Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts (2022) · cites this paper as [88]
In the citing paper
“These observations about the ways in which different types of political polarization amplify others are consistent with social identity theory, which emphasizes the tendency for people to sort themselves into distinct groups that compete for symbolic and material resources88–92.”
From Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts (2022) · cites this paper as [88]
In the citing paper
“Group-justifying mechanisms, which are central to social identity theory88,90,91,94, involve group-serving tendencies to advance and maintain the interests and assumptions of the in-group against one or more out-groups (‘us versus them’).”
From Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts (2022) · cites this paper as [88]
Citations
Cites
The psychology of interpersonal relations
Heider, F. (1958) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2089062 · Cited by 17,189
Tversky, A. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.4.327 · Cited by 7,414
Hardin, G. (2009) · Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research · doi:10.1080/19390450903037302 · Cited by 6,461
Social categorization and intergroup behaviour
Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202 · Cited by 5,562
(1978) · Cited by 5,009
Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination
Tajfel, H. (1970) · Scientific American · doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96 · Cited by 2,577
Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies.
Cialdini, R. B., Borden, R. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.3.366 · Cited by 2,361
Intergroup Conflict And Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment
Sherif, M. (2013) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,344
The Analysis of Subjective Culture.
Mazur, A., Triandis, H. C., Vasiliou, V., Vassiliou, G. A., Tanaka, Y., & Shanmugam, A. V. (1974) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2061987 · Cited by 1,769
Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities
Campbell, D. T. (2007) · Systems Research and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1002/bs.3830030103 · Cited by 1,597
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245
The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2004) · Political Psychology · doi:10.4324/9780203505984-16 · Cited by 13,467
Affect and Cognition Based Trust as Foundations for Interpersonal Cooperation in Organizations
McAllister, D. J. (1995) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/256727 · Cited by 7,346
Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 · Cited by 6,682
Power, approach, and inhibition.
Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C. (2003) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.110.2.265 · Cited by 3,427
Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.608 · Cited by 3,426
Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R., & Nosek, B. A. (2004) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00402.x · Cited by 2,883
Downward comparison principles in social psychology
Wills, T. A. (1981) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245 · Cited by 2,705
Guilt: An interpersonal approach
Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.243 · Cited by 1,884
The common ingroup identity model: recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias.
Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1993) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779343000004 · Cited by 1,559
Demographic Diversity, Conflict, and Work Group Outcomes: An Intervening Process Theory
Pelled, L. H. (1996) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.7.6.615 · Cited by 1,489
What Differences Make a Difference?: The Promise and Reality of Diverse Teams in Organizations
Mannix, E., & Neale, M. A. (2005) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2005.00022.x · Cited by 1,276
Toward a Measure of Patriotic and Nationalistic Attitudes
Kosterman, R., & Feshbach, S. (1989) · Political Psychology · doi:10.2307/3791647 · Cited by 1,225
Brewer, M. B., & Chen, Y.-R. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.133 · Cited by 1,200
Self-citationIngroup favoritism in cooperation: a meta-analysis
Balliet, D., Wu, J., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0037737 · Cited by 1,126
Marques, J. M., Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Leyens, J. (1988) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420180102 · Cited by 888
Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization.
Kurzban, R., Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.251541498 · Cited by 870
Esses, V. M., Jackson, L. M., & Armstrong, T. L. (1998) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01244.x · Cited by 833
Stigma and prejudice: One animal or two?
Phelan, J. C., Link, B. G., & Dovidio, J. F. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.022 · Cited by 809
Collective self-esteem and ingroup bias
Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.60 · Cited by 845
Park, B., & Rothbart, M. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.6.1051 · Cited by 653
Challenges and barriers in virtual teams: a literature review
Morrison-Smith, S., & Ruiz, J. (2020) · SN Applied Sciences · doi:10.1007/s42452-020-2801-5 · Cited by 633
Dynamic debates: an analysis of group polarization over time on Twitter
Yardi, S., & Boyd, D. (2010) · Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society · doi:10.1177/0270467610380011 · Cited by 625
Psychosocial origins of obesity stigma: toward changing a powerful and pervasive bias
Puhl, R. M., & Brownell, K. D. (2003) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1046/j.1467-789x.2003.00122.x · Cited by 623
Social Dominance Theory: Its Agenda and Method
Sidanius, J., Pratto, F., Van Laar, C., & Levin, S. (2004) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00401.x · Cited by 618
Bonanno, G. A., Romero, S. A., & Klein, S. I. (2015) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2015.992677 · Cited by 551
Individual Swift Trust and Knowledge-Based Trust in Face-to-Face and Virtual Team Members
Robert, L. P., Denis, A. R., & Hung, Y.-T. C. (2009) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.2753/mis0742-1222260210 · Cited by 514
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(04)36001-6 · Cited by 650
I belong, therefore, I exist: ingroup identification, ingroup entitativity, and ingroup bias.
Castano, E., Yzerbyt, V., Paladino, M.-P., & Sacchi, S. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202282001 · Cited by 493
Brickson, S. (2000) · The Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2000.2791604 · Cited by 556
A developmental intergroup theory of social stereotypes and prejudice
Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2006) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(06)80004-2 · Cited by 481
Extending the Benefits of Recategorization: Evaluations, Self-Disclosure, and Helping
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Validzic, A., Matoka, K., Johnson, B., & Frazier, S. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1327 · Cited by 470
McKay, R. T., & Dennett, D. C. (2009) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x09990975 · Cited by 474
Are All Out-Groups Created Equal? Consumer Identity and Dissociative Influence
White, K., & Dahl, D. W. (2007) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/520077 · Cited by 425
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2005) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00424.x · Cited by 424
Brady, W. J., Crockett, M. J., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620917336 · Cited by 417
The evolution of antisocial punishment in optional public goods games
Rand, D. G., & Nowak, M. A. (2011) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms1442 · Cited by 350
Haslam, S. A., Eggins, R. A., & Reynolds, K. J. (2003) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317903321208907 · Cited by 362
Molden, D. C., Lucas, G. M., Gardner, W. L., Dean, K., & Knowles, M. L. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012958 · Cited by 352
The Psychology of Rituals: An Integrative Review and Process-Based Framework
Hobson, N. M., Schroeder, J., Risen, J. L., Xygalatas, D., & Inzlicht, M. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868317734944 · Cited by 354
In-Group or Out-Group Extemity: Importance of the Threatened Social Identity
Branscombe, N. R., Wann, D. L., Noel, J. G., & Coleman, J. (1993) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167293194003 · Cited by 334
Self-esteem and direct versus indirect forms of self-enhancement.
Brown, J. D., Collins, R. L., & Schmidt, G. W. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.3.445 · Cited by 336
Out-group homogeneity effects in natural and minimal groups.
Ostrom, T. M., & Sedikides, C. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.536 · Cited by 334
Adler, P. S., & Chen, C. X. (2011) · Accounting, Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/j.aos.2011.02.002 · Cited by 329
Divine Boundaries: How Religion Shapes Citizens’ Attitudes Toward Immigrants
Leon McDaniel, E., Nooruddin, I., & Faith Shortle, A. (2011) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x10371300 · Cited by 284
Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts
Jost, J. T., Baldassarri, D. S., & Druckman, J. N. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00093-5 · Cited by 276
Adaptive rationality: an evolutionary perspective on cognitive bias
Haselton, M. G., Bryant, G. A., Wilke, A., Frederick, D. A., Galperin, A., Frankenhuis, W. E., & Moore, T. (2009) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2009.27.5.733 · Cited by 222
Changing Interracial Evaluations and Behavior: The Effects of a Common Group Identity
Nier, J. A., Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Banker, B. S., Ward, C. M., & Rust, M. C. (2001) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430201004004001 · Cited by 215
Remorse, Confession, Group Identity, and Expectancies About Repeating a Transgression
Gold, G. J., & Weiner, B. (2000) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2204_3 · Cited by 216
Group Representations and Intergroup Bias: Positive Affect, Similarity, and Group Size
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Isen, A. M., & Lowrance, R. (1995) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167295218009 · Cited by 209
So Right It's Wrong: Groupthink and the Ubiquitous Nature of Polarized Group Decision Making
Baron, R. S. (2005) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(05)37004-3 · Cited by 212
Lowry, P. B., Zhang, D., Zhou, L., & Fu, X. (2010) · Information Systems Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2575.2009.00334.x · Cited by 206
Social loafing and group evaluation
Harkins, S. G., & Szymanski, K. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.6.934 · Cited by 198
Neurocognitive Basis of Racial Ingroup Bias in Empathy
Han, S. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.02.013 · Cited by 182
Leading diversity: Towards a theory of functional leadership in diverse teams.
Homan, A. C., Gündemir, S., Buengeler, C., & van Kleef, G. A. (2020) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000482 · Cited by 217
Miller, S. L., Maner, J. K., & Becker, D. V. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018086 · Cited by 177
Mortality salience increases adherence to salient norms and values
Gailliot, M. T., Stillman, T. F., Schmeichel, B. J., Maner, J. K., & Plant, E. A. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208316791 · Cited by 174
Political partisanship influences perception of biracial candidates' skin tone
Caruso, E. M., Mead, N. L., & Balcetis, E. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0905362106 · Cited by 141
Causadias, J. M., Vitriol, J. A., & Atkin, A. L. (2018) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000099 · Cited by 142
General and personal mortality salience and nationalistic bias
Nelson, L. J., Moore, D. L., Olivetti, J., & Scott, T. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167297238008 · Cited by 139
Attitude polarization: Effects of group membership.
Mackie, D., & Cooper, J. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.575 · Cited by 139
Clark, C. J., & Winegard, B. M. (2020) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2020.1721233 · Cited by 128
Schimel, J., Arndt, J., Banko, K. M., & Cook, A. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.75.30984 · Cited by 127
Perceiving the World Through Group-Colored Glasses: A Perceptual Model of Intergroup Relations
Xiao, Y. J., Coppin, G., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2016) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2016.1199221 · Cited by 121
Zero-Sum Bias: Perceived Competition Despite Unlimited Resources
Meegan, D. V. (2010) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00191 · Cited by 114
Experimental Existential Psychology: Coping With the Facts of Life
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Koole, S., & Solomon, S. (2010) · Handbook of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001020 · Cited by 116
How Can It Be Made Right Again? A Review of Trust Repair Research
Sharma, K., Schoorman, F. D., & Ballinger, G. A. (2023) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063221089897 · Cited by 117
Rodeheffer, C. D., Hill, S. E., & Lord, C. G. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612450892 · Cited by 98
The Neuroscience of Stigma and Stereotype Threat
Derks, B., Inzlicht, M., & Kang, S. (2008) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207088036 · Cited by 74
Inside the Mental Voting Booth: An Impression-Driven Process Model of Candidate Evaluation
Lodge, M., & Stroh, P. (1993) · Explorations in Political Psychology · doi:10.1215/9780822396697-011 · Cited by 66
A comparison of minimal group induction procedures
Pinter, B., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430210375251 · Cited by 64
Claudy, M. C., Aquino, K., & Graso, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.898027 · Cited by 34
Social Diversity and Social Preferences in Mixed-Motive Reinforcement Learning
McKee, K. R., Gemp, I., McWilliams, B., Duèñez-Guzmán, E. A., Hughes, E., & Leibo, J. Z. (2020) · International Joint Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems · doi:10.65109/dnuf7773 · Cited by 33
Oxytocin promotes attention to social cues regardless of group membership
Pfundmair, M., Zwarg, C., Paulus, M., & Rimpel, A. (2017) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.03.006 · Cited by 23
Kahn, D. T., Klar, Y., & Roccas, S. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216684123 · Cited by 25
Robert, L. P. (2016) · Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2858036.2858534 · Cited by 15
Performance monitoring during a minimal group manipulation
Pfabigan, D. M., Holzner, M.-T., & Lamm, C. (2016) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsw071 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Brewer, M. B.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Brewer, Marilynn B.
- ORCID
- Brewer, Marilynn B.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1979-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 307-324
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2166061111
- Cited by
- 3,411
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 55 · 2025: 72 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 113 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 168 · 2019: 157 · 2018: 124 · 2017: 129 · 2016: 119 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 147 · 2013: 121 · 2012: 147
- FWCI
- 69.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
- Keywords
- in-group favoritism, intergroup discrimination, minimal group paradigm, outgroup hostility, intergroup differentiation, intergroup competition, similarity, status differentials, group identification, ethnocentrism
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
