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Cited by 116Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchMemory Processes and InfluencesPsychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments

Dissociation and memory fragmentation in post-traumatic stress disorder: An evaluation of the dissociative encoding hypothesis

Open access
Bedard-Gilligan, Michele, Zoellner, Lori A.·2012·Memory
DOI 10.1080/09658211.2012.655747PMC PMC3310188
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Abstract

Several prominent theories of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) posit that peritraumatic dissociation results in insufficient encoding of the trauma memory and that persistent dissociation prevents memory elaboration, resulting in memory fragmentation and PTSD. In this review we summarise the empirical literature on peritraumatic and trait dissociation and trauma narrative fragmentation as measured by meta-memory and rater/objective coding. Across 16 studies to date, the association between dissociation and fragmentation was most prominent when examining peritraumatic dissociation and patient's own ratings of memory fragmentation. This relationship did not hold when examining trait dissociation or rater-coded or computer-generated measures of fragmentation. Thus initial evidence points more towards a strong self-reported association between constructs that is not supported on more objective fragmentation coding. Measurement overlap, construct ambiguity, and exclusion of potential confounds may underlie lack of a strong association between dissociation and objective-rated fragmentation.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/09658211.2012.655747

Cites

148 of 148 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

15 of 201 cited sources checked · 5 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Acute stress disorder is associated with PTSD.

    “although acute stress disorder (ASD), a disorder characterized by dissociative symptoms during or immediately following a traumatic event, is associated with PTSD (e.g., Creamer, O'Donnell, & Pattison, 2004; Harvey & Bryant, 2000; Murray et al., 2002)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Creamer, O'Donnell, & Pattison, 2004 source
    • cites Harvey & Bryant, 2000 source
    • cites Murray et al., 2002 source
  • Premisecitation

    Evidence is growing that trait and persistent dissociation may predict PTSD better than peritraumatic dissociation.

    “Growing evidence suggests a tendency to dissociate (trait) and continued dissociation in response to reminders (persistent) may be more predictive of PTSD than peritraumatic dissociation (Briere et al., 2005; McFarlane, 1997; Murray et al., 2002; Pansetis & Bryant, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Briere et al., 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McFarlane, 1997 source
    • cites Murray et al., 2002 source

      In “Dissociation as a predictor of PTSD” (page not provided), the paper says persistent dissociation was a stronger predictor of chronic PTSD than dissociation during the accident. It does not support the same comparison for trait dissociation: the outpatient study found that dissociation during the accident predicted PTSD symptoms over and above a pre-accident tendency to dissociate. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    In Murray et al.'s outpatient sample, higher peritraumatic dissociation on the SDQ was linked to moderately higher single-item meta-memory fragmentation soon after trauma.

    “Consistent with the findings of Halligan et al. (2003), individuals in the outpatient sample who reported higher peritraumatic dissociation on the SDQ also reported moderately higher single item meta-memory fragmentation (“Are your memories of the accident in any way unclear or jumbled?”) immediately after trauma.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Murray et al., 2002 source
  • Findingcitation

    Across Criterion A trauma samples, higher peritraumatic dissociation consistently accompanied higher self-rated fragmentation.

    “Taken together results of Halligan et al. (2003), Murray et al. (2002), and Hardy et al. (2009) generally suggest that, in Criterion A trauma-exposed samples, individuals with higher peritraumatic dissociation consistently show higher meta-memory ratings of fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Halligan et al., 2003 source
    • cites Murray et al., 2002 source

      In “Other cognitive predictors” (page not supplied), self-reported memory fragmentation correlated positively with initial dissociation among out-patients (r = 0.37, P < 0.001). The passage does not report the same association for the in-patient sample, so this paper supports the relationship in one road-accident sample but not the claim that it appeared consistently across samples. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Hardy et al., 2009 source
  • Premisecitation

    Murray et al. reported that early meta-memory fragmentation weakly predicted PTSD at both four-week and six-month follow-ups across their samples.

    “Meta-memory fragmentation assessed soon after trauma modestly predicted PTSD at four weeks and six months following trauma in both samples.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Murray et al., 2002 source

      The Other cognitive predictors section reports that memory fragmentation tended to have a positive relationship with PTSD severity. Its Table 2 does not show consistent prediction at both follow-ups in both samples: initial self-reported fragmentation was not significantly associated with six-month PTSD in out-patients or with either follow-up in in-patients, although expert-rated fragmentation in in-patients showed stronger associations. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • May combine two claims. 59
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 34
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fragmentation of the trauma memory is frequently observed clinically and remains an important treatment focus for PTSD.

    “Fragmentation of the trauma memory is a phenomenon that is often clinically observed, and continues to be an important area of focus for those treating PTSD (e.g., Becker, Zayfert, & Anderson, 2004, van der Kolk et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Becker, Zayfert, & Anderson, 2004 source
    • cites van der Kolk et al., 2005 source

      The Treatment Implications section discusses dissociation and affect regulation as treatment concerns before trauma exposure, but does not identify fragmented trauma memory as a clinical observation or treatment focus. Searches for “fragmentation of the trauma memory” and “fragmented traumatic memories treatment PTSD” found no passage addressing that specific claim. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    This investigation suggests that although most individuals with DID reported lack of narrative memory, high trait dissociation was not specifically related to fragmented meta-memory and memory disturbance may not be unique to traumatic events in a severe clinical sample.

    “This investigation suggests that although the majority of individuals with DID reported a lack of narrative memory, high trait dissociation was not specifically related to fragmented meta-memory and memory disturbance may not be unique to traumatic events, at least in a severe clinical sample.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites van der Hart et al., 2005 source

      The Fragmentary Recall of Memories (p. 10) reports that only 45.6% of the DID participants developed a complete narrative memory of trauma. The Discussion (p. 9) and Conclusion (p. 13) report fragmented recall of emotionally significant non-traumatic events as well. The Dissociation section (p. 5) finds no significant correlation between dissociation scores and the degree of forgetting the traumatic event, but does not establish the claimed lack of a specific relationship with fragmented meta-memory. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    In the reviewed studies, three measures were used for peritraumatic dissociation: the PDEQ, the SDQ, and the ASDI.

    “In the studies reviewed here, three measures were used for peritraumatic dissociation: the PDEQ (Marmar et al., 1997), the State Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ; Murray et al., 2002), and the Acute Stress Disorder Inventory (ASDI; Bryant, Harvey, Dang, & Sackville, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Marmar et al., 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Murray et al., 2002 source
    • cites Bryant, Harvey, Dang, & Sackville, 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Memories change over time, and time since trauma may degrade memory traces, resulting in recounting that appears fragmented.

    “Memories change over time (e.g., Hepp et al., 2006; Southwick et al., 1997; Zoellner et al., 2001) and time since the trauma may degrade memory traces (e.g., McNally, 2005), resulting in recounting that appears fragmented.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hepp et al., 2006 source
    • cites Southwick et al., 1997 source
    • cites Zoellner et al., 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Only two studies in this review looked specifically at childhood abuse, and both failed to find consistent significant relationships between trait dissociation and memory fragmentation.

    “It is interesting to note that only two studies in this review looked specifically at childhood abuse (Peace et al., 2008; van der Hart et al., 2005) and both failed to find consistent significant relationships between trait dissociation and memory fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Peace et al., 2008 source
    • cites van der Hart et al., 2005 source

      The Introduction (p. 2) says the study examined traumatic and non-traumatic memories in women with dissociative identity disorder, and the paper reports that all participants had histories of severe childhood abuse (p. 1). The Dissociation results (p. 5) found no significant relationship between dissociation scores and the degree of forgetting a traumatic event, but forgetting is not the same as memory fragmentation; the cited paper does not report the claimed test of trait dissociation against fragmentation. The assertion that there were only two such studies in the citing review cannot be established from this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The reconstructive and changing nature of memory challenges the idea that fragmentation is unique to trauma, because all memories are expected to be recounted with varying detail and coherence over time.

    “Furthermore, the reconstructive, changing nature of memory (e.g., Schacter, 1996) challenges the notion that fragmentation is unique to trauma, as it is expected that all memories will be recounted with varying detail and coherence over time (McNally, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schacter, 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McNally, 2005 source

      In “Memory Does Not Operate Like a Videotape Recorder” (page unavailable), McNally says all recollection is reconstructive and no memory is immune to change over time. “Confusion About Repetition, Emotional Arousal, and Memory” adds that details of similar events may blur. The paper does not establish that all memories will be recounted with varying coherence over time. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Across studies, higher peritraumatic dissociation is associated with higher meta-memory fragmentation, with a positive moderate association in most studies.

    “Across studies, individuals reporting higher peritraumatic dissociation reported higher meta-memory fragmentation.”
    • Also stated in: § Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation · boosted
      “Thus, the vast majority of studies show a link between peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation, including three studies that used Criterion A samples and three analogue studies, consistently showing a positive moderate association.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Buck et al., 2005b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Engelhard et al., 2003 source
    • cites Halligan et al., 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Analogue designs suggest that greater peritraumatic dissociation relates to greater meta-memory fragmentation, though these studies are limited by single-item measures.

    “Similar to the above analogue studies (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005), this study is limited by the same single-item measure and again suggests that when assessed with analogue designs that greater peritraumatic dissociation is related to greater meta-memory fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kindt & van den Hout, 2003 source
    • cites Kindt et al., 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingreasoning

    The review included 16 studies that reported direct relationships between dissociation and fragmentation.

    “Therefore, 16 studies were included in this review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The association was absent for trait dissociation and for rater-coded or computer-generated fragmentation measures.

    “This relationship did not hold when examining trait dissociation or rater-coded or computer-generated measures of fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The mixed pattern and lack of reported findings in Peace et al. (2008) make strong conclusions difficult, but the pattern does not suggest a consistent relationship between meta-memory fragmentation and trait dissociation.

    “Overall, the mixed pattern of results for this study and the lack of reported findings make it difficult to draw strong conclusions; but, in general, the pattern of findings does not suggest a consistent relationship between meta-memory fragmentation and trait dissociation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peace et al., 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Overall, peritraumatic dissociation appears associated with perceptions of fragmentation but was not consistently associated with rater or objectively-coded fragmentation.

    “Overall, although reports of peritraumatic dissociation appear to be associated with perceptions of fragmentation, it was not consistently associated with rater or objectively-coded fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    No studies have examined the association between trait dissociation and objectively-coded fragmentation.

    “We are aware of no studies that have examined the association between trait dissociation and objectively-coded fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation, with only two of seven studies finding consistent positive relationships.

    “Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002), with only two studies out of seven finding consistent positive relationships (Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Buck et al., 2006b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jones et al., 2007 source
    • cites Kindt & van den Hout, 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    This study suggests that a tendency to dissociate after a traumatic event is related to perceptions that trauma memory lacks narrative structure, although based on a single-item qualitative assessment.

    “In contrast to Rubin et al. (2004), this study suggests that a tendency to dissociate after a traumatic event is related to perceptions that the trauma memory lacks narrative structure, although this is based on a single-item qualitative assessment of narrative quality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In analogue studies, peritraumatic dissociation was not significantly related to sequential memory performance or subjectively coded fragmentation.

    “Thus, in analogue studies, peritraumatic dissociation was not significantly related to sequential memory performance (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003) or subjectively coded fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Kindt et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kindt & van den Hout, 2003 source
    • cites Buck et al., 2006b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kindt et al., 2005 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Peritraumatic dissociation was not consistently related to coded fragmentation, and the mixed pattern of results is inconclusive.

    “Although the authors suggest a possible link between peritraumatic dissociation and coded fragmentation, peritraumatic dissociation was not consistently related to coded fragmentation and the mixed pattern of results is inconclusive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zoellner et al., 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The SDQ lacks published reliability or validity information.

    “The SDQ, although used in several studies, lacks published reliability or validity information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    To date, no studies have examined trauma narratives in terms of how integrated they are into an individual's overall autobiographical memory.

    “For example, to date, no studies have looked at trauma narratives in terms of their degree of integration into an individuals' overall autobiographical memory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The DES is commonly used in traumatized samples and was used in most reviewed studies that included trait dissociation (8 of 12).

    “In regard to trait dissociation, the DES (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986) is commonly used in traumatized samples and was used in the large majority of studies in this review that included trait dissociation (8 out of 12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bernstein & Putnam, 1986 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Gray and Lombardo (2001) showed that greater fragmentation in trauma narratives of individuals with PTSD disappeared when controlling for vocabulary, suggesting fragmentation may be an artifact of lower verbal ability.

    “Gray and Lombardo (2001) showed that findings of greater fragmentation for trauma narratives of individuals with PTSD disappeared when controlling for this using a vocabulary task, suggesting that fragmentation may be an artifact of lower verbal ability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gray & Lombardo, 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Peace and colleagues (2008) examined memory quality for childhood and adult traumatic events and found few consistent differences, except less coherence and more repression associated with childhood events.

    “Peace and colleagues (2008) also looked at differences in memory quality for childhood and adult traumatic events and again found few consistent differences with the exception of less coherence and more repression association with childhood events.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peace et al., 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    This is only one investigation, and it did not report differences in dissociation for adult versus childhood trauma.

    “However, this is only one single investigation and they did not report on differences in dissociation for adult versus childhood trauma”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Overall, this review did not find consistent relationships between memory fragmentation and dissociation, except for peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation.

    “Overall, the results of this review did not find consistent relationships between memory fragmentation and dissociation, with the exception of peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    The majority of current studies exclude potential influences such as distress, arousal, time, and cognitive ability.

    “The majority of current studies exclude these potential influences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Dissociation during a traumatic event appears more associated with increased meta-memory fragmentation, suggesting a link between dissociative encoding and perception of memory quality.

    “It appears that dissociation during a traumatic event is more associated with increased meta-memory fragmentation in the trauma memory, suggesting a link between dissociative encoding and perception of memory quality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In this emerging literature, associations between peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation were the most consistent; those who reported dissociating during trauma also reported perceiving their traumatic memories as more fragmented.

    “In this emerging literature, the associations between peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation were the most consistent; those who reported dissociating during the trauma also reported perceiving their traumatic memories as more fragmented.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Research exploring persistent dissociation is currently lacking in the literature.

    “In particular, research exploring persistent dissociation is currently lacking in the literature and is needed to further our understanding of memory fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    By blocking processing, persistent dissociation may add to both memory fragmentation and the development of PTSD.

    “By hindering processing, persistent dissociation, similar to other types of cognitive and behavioral avoidance (Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996; Panasetis & Bryant, 2003; Wagner & Linehan, 1998) may contribute to both memory fragmentation and PTSD development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996 source
    • cites Panasetis & Bryant, 2003 source
    • cites Wagner & Linehan, 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several prior reviews have critically examined the link between memory fragmentation and PTSD.

    “Several reviews have critically examined the relationship between memory fragmentation and PTSD (see O'Kearney & Perrott, 2006; Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites O'Kearney & Perrott, 2006 source
    • cites Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Engelhard et al. found that one-month meta-memory fragmentation mediated the link between peritraumatic dissociation and one-month PTSD severity, but not four-month severity.

    “Meta-memory fragmentation at one-month post loss mediated the relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD severity at one month, but not four months, post pregnancy loss.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Engelhard et al., 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Halligan et al. found a moderate link between peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory disorganization, but their results weaken the case that disorganization drives PTSD.

    “Taken together, higher peritraumatic dissociation was moderately associated with meta-memory disorganization; however, these results cast doubt on disorganization as a mechanism of PTSD development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Halligan et al., 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Initial evidence supports a strong self-report association between the constructs that objective fragmentation coding does not support.

    “Thus, initial evidence points more toward a strong self-reported association between constructs that is not supported on more objective fragmentation coding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Studies of children and adolescents were excluded because their memory processes, especially narrative memory, may differ from adults'.

    “Studies with adolescents/children were excluded because memory processes, especially narrative memories, may be different in children (e.g., Kenardy et al., 2007; Pynoos, Steinberg, & Aronson, 1997), warranting a separate analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kenardy et al., 2007 source
    • cites Pynoos, Steinberg, & Aronson, 1997 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reports of peritraumatic reactions are often unstable over time and may be biased by current symptoms.

    “However, recollections of peritraumatic reactions are often inconsistent over time and are potentially biased by current symptoms (Harvey & Bryant, 2000; Southwick, Morgan, Nicolaou, & Charney, 1997; Zoellner, Sacks, & Foa, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Harvey & Bryant, 2000 source
    • cites Southwick, Morgan, Nicolaou, & Charney, 1997 source
    • cites Zoellner, Sacks, & Foa, 2001 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The relationship among dissociation, trauma, and information processing is still contentious.

    “Thus, this issue of the relationship between dissociation, trauma, and information processing remains contentious.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Decreases in subjectively coded peritraumatic dissociation may be an artifact of changes in coded narrative organization, and peritraumatic dissociation was not associated with fragmentation.

    “Thus, decreases in subjectively coded peritraumatic dissociation may be an artifact of the changes in coded narrative organization, and peritraumatic dissociation was not associated with fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moulds & Bryant, 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Trait dissociation may represent persistent dissociation after trauma and thus contribute to fragmented trauma memories.

    “As discussed above, trait dissociation may be representative of persistent dissociation after a traumatic event, thus contributing to fragmented trauma memories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Peritraumatic dissociation is related to individuals' perception of their memories but is not consistently related to how others perceive and rate trauma memories or to more objective coding of fragmentation.

    “Taken together, these finding suggest that peritraumatic dissociation is related to individuals' perception of their memories but is not consistently related to how others' perceive and rate these trauma memories or other more objective coding of these memories as fragmented.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Peace et al. (2008) found that for sexual traumatic experience, higher trait dissociation was significantly associated with more reported emotion and memory repression and less reported memory quality, at a moderate to strong level.

    “For the sexual traumatic experience, higher trait dissociation, as assessed by the DES, was significantly associated with more reported emotion and memory repression, and less reported memory quality, at a moderate to strong level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peace et al., 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These findings question the association between peritraumatic dissociation and disorganization and suggest that disorganization may be related more to PTSD than to dissociation.

    “Taken together, these findings question the association between peritraumatic dissociation and disorganization and in particular suggest that disorganization may be related more to PTSD than to dissociation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jones et al., 2007 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Jones et al. (2007), initial disorganization predicted PTSD at three months but did not predict over and above peritraumatic dissociation (ASD diagnosis).

    “In the prospective analyses, although disorganization at initial assessment predicted PTSD three months post-trauma, it did not predict over and above peritraumatic dissociation (i.e., ASD diagnosis).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jones et al., 2007 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Zoellner et al. (2002), narratives of women with high peritraumatic dissociation had more sensory components and lower reading ease than those with low peritraumatic dissociation, but also higher-grade levels and more negative emotions.

    “Using both subjective and objective coding, narratives of individuals with high peritraumatic dissociation had more sensory components and lower reading ease than those low in peritraumatic dissociation; however, inconsistent with fragmentation, individuals with high peritraumatic dissociation recounted narratives with higher-grade levels and more negative emotions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zoellner et al., 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    It remains unclear if trait dissociation is related to either higher rater-defined narrative fragmentation or PTSD.

    “Thus, it remains unclear if trait dissociation is related to either higher rater-defined narrative fragmentation or PTSD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peace et al., 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This pattern is inconsistent with meta-memory for snapshot quality, suggesting that peritraumatic dissociation predicts perception of memory quality but not recounting or memory performance after an analogue traumatic event.

    “This is inconsistent with meta-memory for snapshot quality, suggesting that peritraumatic dissociation predicts perception of memory quality, but not recounting or memory performance, after an analogue traumatic event.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In analogue studies, peritraumatic dissociation during film viewing was not significantly related to sequential memory task performance or rater-coded narrative recall using a one-item rating.

    “In the three analogue studies described earlier (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005), peritraumatic dissociation during film viewing was not significantly related to either performance on a sequential memory task (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005) or to rater-coded narrative recall using a one-item rating (Kindt et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kindt & van den Hout, 2003 source
    • cites Kindt et al., 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Failing to treat trait, state, and peritraumatic dissociation as distinct yet related constructs may complicate conclusions about dissociation and fragmentation.

    “A failure to conceptualize trait, state, and peritraumatic dissociation as distinct, yet related, constructs may further be complicating conclusions on dissociation and fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many measures of dissociation exist, and there is no gold-standard measure.

    “A variety of measures exist for dissociation, and there is not a “gold-standard” (Bryant, 2007; Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bryant, 2007 source
    • cites Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dissociation is reported after both aversive and pleasant events, which casts doubt on dissociation being unique to trauma.

    “Furthermore, dissociation is reported after both aversive and pleasant events (Candel & Merckelbach, 2004), casting doubt on dissociation as unique to trauma.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Candel & Merckelbach, 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Dissociation during trauma may reduce distress and physiological arousal.

    “To elaborate, dissociation during a trauma may help protect against encoding threatening, aversive memories (e.g., Horowitz, 1986) and may reduce distress and physiological arousal, although support for this hypothesis is inconsistent (Bryant, Harvey, Guthrie, & Moulds, 2000; Fikretoglu et al., 2006; Griffin, Resick, & Mechanic, 1997; Kaufman et al., 2002; Nixon & Bryant, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Emotional numbing is often considered a key symptom of dissociation.

    “Emotional numbing is often considered a key symptom of dissociation (e.g., Bryant, 2007; Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bryant, 2007 source
    • cites Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dissociation is a ubiquitous and normative phenomenon that occurs in well-adjusted healthy individuals as well as trauma survivors.

    “Dissociation is a ubiquitous and normative phenomenon, occurring in well-adjusted, healthy individuals as well as trauma survivors (e.g., Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Kihlstrom et al., 1994; Bryant, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bernstein & Putnam, 1986 source
    • cites Kihlstrom et al., 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Bryant, 2007 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An inability to measure fragmentation precisely leaves it inadequately defined, producing a know-it-when-you-see-it phenomenon.

    “The problem with this is that an inability to precisely measure fragmentation results in it being inadequately defined; a “know it when you see it” phenomenon.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Fragmentation may be most easily detected through global impressions.

    “As mentioned above, perhaps fragmentation is most easily detected with global impressions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Fragmentation is commonly reported in clinical observations.

    “Anecdotally, fragmentation is commonly reported in clinical observations (van der Kolk & van der Hart, 1989), however if fragmentation is indeed a ubiquitous experience after trauma, it is surprising that we would be able to not capture it when objectively assessing memory quality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites van der Kolk & van der Hart, 1989

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Trait dissociation implies persistent post-trauma dissociation: a higher general tendency to dissociate may increase the likelihood of dissociating after a traumatic event and may contribute to greater memory fragmentation.

    “Trait dissociation implies persistent post-trauma dissociation in that a higher general tendency to dissociate may indicate an increased likelihood to dissociate following a traumatic event and may contribute to higher memory fragmentation (e.g., Bryant, 2007; Ehlers & Clark, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bryant, 2007 source
    • cites Ehlers & Clark, 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The ASDI measures ASD and may confound peritraumatic and continued dissociation.

    “Finally, the ASDI is a measure of ASD and may be confounding peritraumatic and continued dissociation (Bryant, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bryant, 2007 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Emotional numbing and avoidance are positively associated with dissociation and PTSD.

    “omitting key constructs that are positively associated with dissociation and PTSD (Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996; Foa & Riggs, 1993; Foa, Riggs, & Gershuny, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996 source
    • cites Foa & Riggs, 1993

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Foa, Riggs, & Gershuny, 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This pattern suggests either that persistent dissociation is not meaningfully related to increased fragmentation or that trait dissociation measures fail to capture reminder-cued dissociation.

    “suggesting that either persistent dissociation is not meaningfully related to increased fragmentation or that trait dissociation measures are not capturing this reminder-cued dissociation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Trait dissociation may be a vulnerability factor for peritraumatic dissociation and may mediate the relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and fragmentation.

    “Specifically, trait dissociation may be a vulnerability factor for peritraumatic dissociation (Kihlstrom et al., 1994), potentially mediating the relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and fragmentation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kihlstrom et al., 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Questions on the PDEQ overlap with fragmentation, potentially confusing the constructs.

    “As discussed, questions from the PDEQ overlap with fragmentation, potentially confusing constructs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Assessing central versus peripheral details in traumatic events, which are often complex and prolonged, is challenging.

    “As noted by Brewin (2007), assessment of central versus peripheral details in traumatic events, which are often complex and prolonged, is challenging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brewin, 2007 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    If trauma memories are represented differently from other memories because of dissociative encoding, then more robust findings linking dissociation and fragmentation across measures and constructs would be expected.

    “If, as suggested by some fragmentation-focused theories (e.g., Brewin, 2001; van der Kolk,1987), trauma memories are represented differently than other types of memories due to dissociative encoding then we might expect more robust findings regarding dissociation and fragmentation across measures and constructs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brewin, 2001 source
    • cites van der Kolk, 1987

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ehlers and Clark's (2000) cognitive processing model posits processes such as avoidance and interpretations of the event to account for unelaborated trauma memories and PTSD, and may provide a more parsimonious view of post-trauma psychological processes and shift emphasis to beliefs and perceptions.

    “For example, Ehlers and Clark's (2000) cognitive processing model posits processes, such as avoidance and interpretations of the event, to account for unelaborated trauma memories and PTSD, and may provide a more parsimonious view of post-trauma psychological processes, and shift emphasis to beliefs and perceptions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ehlers & Clark, 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This suggests that the focus should potentially be on beliefs about memory rather than actual memory quality.

    “This suggests that the focus should potentially be on beliefs about memory instead of actual memory quality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It may not be necessary to posit dissociation as an explanation for fragmentation, because some degree of fragmentation is an expected normal phenomenon.

    “Thus, it may not be necessary to posit dissociation as explanatory for fragmentation, as some degree of fragmentation is an expected, normal phenomenon.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    State dissociation during recall that decreases distress is expected to be associated with lower fragmentation, whereas state dissociation that does not decrease distress may be associated with higher meta-memory fragmentation or narratives that appear fragmented without actual fragmentation.

    “In cases where dissociation during recall (state) decreases distress, we might expect lower fragmentation; whereas, in cases where dissociation does not decrease distress, it may result in either higher meta-memory fragmentation or narratives that look fragmented when recalled (e.g., contains uhs, ums, confusion), but may not actually be fragmented.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The use of data-driven processing strategies may help account for both higher dissociation and fragmentation, suggesting these variables need careful attention in future studies.

    “Thus, similar to distress, time, and cognitive ability, the use of data-driven processing strategies may help account for both higher dissociation and fragmentation, suggesting that these important variables need to be carefully addressed in future studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    These factors, which stress both encoding during an event and processing after an event, have been proposed to explain both intrusions and fragmented memory in PTSD.

    “These factors, which stress both encoding during an event and processing following an event, have been posited to explain the existence of both intrusions and fragmented memory in PTSD (Ehlers et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ehlers et al., 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Fragmentation may be an epiphenomenon resulting from increased distress during recall.

    “Indeed, it has been suggested that fragmentation may be an epiphenomenon resulting from increased distress during recall (Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Self-report measures often assess dissociation that occurred months or years earlier, and retrospective reporting of trauma reactions is often inaccurate.

    “Furthermore, self-report measures often assess dissociation that occurred months or years earlier, and retrospective reporting of trauma reactions are often inaccurate (e.g., Bryant, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bryant, 2007 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Current functioning or the mere passage of time may be a more parsimonious explanation for higher fragmentation and dissociation.

    “Thus, current functioning or the mere passage of time may be a more parsimonious explanation for higher fragmentation and dissociation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Distress or arousal during memory encoding has been proposed to affect memory fragmentation.

    “Distress or arousal during memory encoding has been posited to affect memory fragmentation (e.g., Shobe & Kihlstrom, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shobe & Kihlstrom, 1997 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    During emotional events, memory for central details is enhanced while memory for peripheral details is impaired.

    “It is widely accepted that, during emotional events, memory for central details is enhanced though memory for peripheral details is impaired (see Christianson, 1992).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Christianson, 1992 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Benzodiazepines inhibit memory encoding when taken during an event but paradoxically facilitate memory of traumatic events when taken during recall, suggesting they could either increase or decrease fragmentation depending on context.

    “For example, benzodiazapines, a class of medications often used by individuals with PTSD, inhibit memory encoding when taken during an event but also paradoxically facilitate memory of traumatic events when taken during recall (e.g., Krystal, Bremner, Southwick, & Charney, 1998), suggesting that they could either increase or decrease fragmentation depending on context of use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Krystal, Bremner, Southwick, & Charney, 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This could explain conflicting findings between meta-memory and objective coding measures, with distress or arousal linked to state dissociation more directly affecting narrative recounting than self-reports of memory quality.

    “This could explain conflicting findings between meta-memory and objective coding measures, with distress or arousal associated with state dissociation more directly impacting narrative recounting than self-reports of memory quality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Defining which aspects of an event should be recalled clearly versus those that will be harder to retrieve is idiographic.

    “Defining what aspects of an event are expected to be recalled clearly versus those that will be more difficult to retrieve is idiographic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Dissociation and memory fragmentation figure prominently in several current theories of PTSD.

    “As discussed, dissociation and memory fragmentation figure prominently into several current theories of PTSD (e.g., Brewin, 2001; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Foa, 1997; van der Kolk, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brewin, 2001 source
    • cites Ehlers & Clark, 2000 source
    • cites Foa, 1997 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    If dissociation and fragmentation are indirectly associated through related factors, then those third variables may explain the observed relationships.

    “If dissociation and fragmentation are indirectly associated through related factors, then it may be these third variables that explain observed relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dissociation is often assessed retrospectively, and several factors can affect accuracy, including forgetting, attribution, and malingering.

    “Dissociation is often assessed retrospectively, and several factors can affect accuracy including forgetting, attribution, and malingering (Candel & Merckelbach, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Candel & Merckelbach, 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The finding that individuals who recall feeling disconnected during trauma also tend to recall the memory as more fragmented suggests that for some trauma survivors peritraumatic emotional reactions such as dissociation may function as avoidance and lead to a perception that the memory is unclear and difficult to recall.

    “The finding that individuals who recall feeling disconnected during the traumatic experience also tend to recall the memory as more fragmented suggests that for some trauma survivors peritraumatic emotional reactions, such as dissociation, may function as avoidance and lead to a perception that the memory is unclear and difficult to recall.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This exclusion is problematic because it may produce an incomplete picture of theorized mechanisms.

    “This is problematic as it may be resulting in an incomplete picture of theorized mechanisms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Dissociation may serve as an emotion regulation strategy that helps individuals avoid trauma-related thoughts and emotions, rather than as a process that specifically contributes to the quality of the trauma memory.

    “In other words, dissociation may serve the individual as an emotion regulation strategy that helps them avoid trauma-related thoughts and emotions as opposed to a process that contributes specifically to the quality of the trauma memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings have important implications for theories positing that dissociation negatively impacts memory processing and thereby contributes to the development and maintenance of PTSD.

    “These findings have important implications for theories which posit that dissociation negatively impacts memory processing and thereby contributes to the development and maintenance of PTSD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
84 of 84

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Before this review, no thorough review had examined the empirical evidence linking dissociation, memory processing, and PTSD.

    “However, a thorough review of the empirical evidence linking these constructs has yet to be conducted.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Fragmentation is pervasive across trauma types, including childhood trauma.

    “However, we did include adult samples reporting childhood trauma because fragmentation is hypothesized to be pervasive, and excluding based on trauma type would restrict conclusions.”
2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The review overlooks analogue studies using both fragmentation measures

    Minor

    The paper says only Halligan and Murray included both types of fragmentation, but it also describes Buck et al. as measuring both self-reported fragmentation and rater-coded fragmentation in the same investigation.

  • Murray et al. is classified despite its unreported association

    Minor

    The summary places Murray et al. among studies finding a relationship in the opposite direction. Elsewhere, the review says that study did not report the relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and coded fragmentation.

  • The coded-fragmentation summary uses the wrong denominator

    Minor

    The sentence lists six studies with inconsistent associations and two with consistent positive associations. That makes eight classified studies, not seven.

    Reported 7 · recomputed 8

  • The coded-fragmentation summary miscounts the studies it names

    Minor

    The summary identifies six studies with inconsistent findings and two with consistent positive findings-eight studies in all-but calls the latter two "out of seven."

  • Van der Hart is listed as a positive single-item result despite a null association

    Minor

    The measurement discussion lists van der Hart et al. among positive single-item associations, but the review of that study says trait dissociation was not significantly correlated with its self-reported memory measure.

5 of 5

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

4 of the 152 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 9

  1. Bremner J. D., 2000, Dissociative states, 86
  2. Bremner J. D., 2003, Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 37, 6
  3. Foa E. B., 1993, American Psychiatric Press review of psychiatry, 12, 273
  4. Krystal J., 1995, Memory distortions: How minds, brains, and societies reconstruct the past, 150
  5. Nunnally J. C., 1994, Psychometric theory
  6. Pennebaker J. W., 2001, Linguistic inquiry and word count (LIWC): LIWC 2001
  7. Spiegel D., 1997, Psychobiology of post-traumatic stress disorder, 99
  8. van der Kolk B. A., 1987, Psychological trauma
  9. van der Kolk B. A., 1996, Traumatic stress: Effects of overwhelming stress on mind, body, and society, 303

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Bedard-Gilligan, M., & Zoellner, L. A.
Affiliations
University of Washington (US)
ORCID
Zoellner, Lori A.
Venue
Memory
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2012-04
Volume
20
Issue
3
Pages
277-299
ISSN
  • 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
  • 1464-0686
DOI
10.1080/09658211.2012.655747
PMC
PMC3310188
OpenAlex
W2133489342
Semantic Scholar
ee94b243c79280f91f0c92428c6c68c6a819b6c4
Cited by
116
References
152
Citations by year
2026: 13 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 2
FWCI
13.78
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Memory (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (F31MH074225, R01MH066347)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
Keywords
post-traumatic stress disorder, peritraumatic dissociation, trait dissociation, memory fragmentation, metamemory, self-reported memory
MeSH terms
Dissociative Disorders, Humans, Life Change Events, Memory, Memory Disorders, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Observer Variation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-09-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-09-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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